Attachment
Attachment
Caregiver-infant interactions in humans
Reciprocity and interactional synchrony
Attachment: A two way emotional bond between two people, usually a parent and child,
in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security.
‣ Infants demonstrate attachment though 1. proximity seeking 2. separation distress and
3. a secure base
Reciprocity: A caregiver-infant interaction, which is a two-way process where each
responds to the other’s signals (facial expressions, verbal signals, behaviours) to sustain
the interaction, taking it in turns.
Caregiverse: The modi ed vocal language that an adult uses to interact with an infant to
aid communication and strengthen the bond.
Sensitive responsiveness: Recognising and responding appropriately to infants' needs
Interactional synchrony: The caregiver and infant re ect the actions and emotions of the
other in a co-ordinated (synchronised) way.
‣ High levels of synchrony are associated with better quality attachments (Isabella et al)
KEY STUDY: Meltzo and Moore (1977)
Aim
To conduct a systematic study of interactional synchrony to nd out of it exists in new
born infants.
Procedure
‣ A controlled observation was made on infants as young as two weeks old
‣ An adult model displayed 3 di erent facial expressions or hand gestures while a
dummy was in the infants mouth
‣ The dummy was removed and an observer watched the behaviour of the infant, noting
all instances of any tongue protrusions and head movements
‣ Each observer scored the tapes twice so the intra-observer and inter-observer (two
people test independently and then discuss their results) reliability could be calculated
Findings
you have to make inferences because
‣ There was an association between the infant the babies can’t give feedback
behaviour and the adult model
Conclusion
‣ Interactional synchrony is innate as the children are too young to have learnt it
Page 1 of 24 A Level Psychology Paper 1
fi ff ff fl fi
, Attachment
STRENGTH
P: There is supporting research evidence for the innate existence of caregiver
interactions such as interactional synchrony and caregiverse.
E: Meltzo and Moore (1977/1993) found that infants aged two weeks tended to mimic
adults’ speci c facial expressions and hand movements and later found the same in
infants as young as 3 days old.
E: Papousek et al (1991) found that the tendency to use a rising tone to show an infant
it was their turn in the interaction was cross-cultural as American, Chinese and German
mothers all exhibited the behaviour.
L: These interactions are innate not learned and are essential for making attachments
STRENGTH
P: The controlled observations captured micro-sequences of interaction.
E: The observations video behaviour from multiple angles and allow behaviour to be
observed. This enables ne details to be recorded and analysed.
E: The babies are so young so they don’t know they are being observed so they wont
change their response which can normally be a problem with observational research.
L: Findings will be high in validity so can be generalised in real life.
WEAKNESS
P: It is hard to know what is happening when observing infants and interactions babies
cannot communicate.
E: For example, what is being observed is merely facial movements and hand gestures
but are the infant’s movements conscious and deliberate? This means that we can only
make inferences about these types of behaviours and why they exist.
E: Feldman (2012) explained that synchrony (and reciprocity) simply describe the
behaviours occurring together rather they telling us their purpose.
L: Findings can’t truly tell us if they have a special meaning to create attachments.
CP: Isabella et al (1989) found high levels of synchrony in mother-infant interactions
were better associated with better quality mother-infant attachments.
The Role of the Father
Father as a secondary attachment Father in a nurturing role
‣ Sha er and Emerson found a secondary ‣ Field found fathers who
attachment gure as children attach to father later become PCG can develop
than a mother (speci c attachment) - 75% at 18 more sensitivity to children’s
months needs and become a secure-
‣ Fathers don’t o er as much interaction or are base
less sensitive in responding to infant’s signals ‣ Sensitive
‣ Grossman (2002) found quality of attachment in responsiveness is not
adolescence was related to quality of attachments gender speci c
with mothers and quality of play with fathers during
infancy
‣ Father’s attachment is less important as they
are for play
‣ Geiger (1996) found fathers’ are playmates rather
than caregivers as their play interactions are
pleasurable, whilst mothers’ are more nurturing
Page 2 of 24 A Level Psychology Paper 1
ff ff fififi ff fi fi
, Attachment
Father as a secondary attachment Father in a nurturing role
‣ Lamb (1987) found children prefer interacting with ‣ Frank et al (1997) looked at
fathers when in a positive emotional state but two-parent families where
mothers are preferred when they are distressed and the father is the PCG and
seek comfort found both parents often
‣ Hrdy (1999) found males are less biologically suited share the role, showing
to be the primary attachment gure as they are less fathers can develop a
able than mothers to detect infant distress, involving strong attachment infancy if
nurturing and sensitivity family circumstance allow
WEAKNESS
P: Psychologists focus on di erent research questions.
E: For example, some are interested in the role of the fathers as secondary attachment
gures focusing on how mothers and fathers behave di erently e.g. nurturing vs playful.
E: In contrast, others are more concerned with understanding their role as primary
attachment gures and discovering conditions that mean fathers take on a more
nurturing role.
L: Psychologist’s don’t have a clear answer to the question - a problem for researching.
WEAKNESS
P: Social biases prevent objective observation of the role of the father.
E: Preconceptions about how fathers behave, such as they go o to work and are sole
providers for the family, are created by common discussions about mothers’ and
fathers’ parenting behaviour.
E: These stereotypes may cause unintentional observer bias where the observers ‘see’
what they expect rather than recording actual reality.
L: Conclusions on the role of the father are hard to disentangle from social biases.
ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
E: Field showed the importance of nurture of a child in the formation of an attachment
and that gender doesn’t matter.
E: This could make working parents feel guilty that they aren’t with their child enough,
meaning one might leave work, bringing down the family income.
L: Economic implications could be large if parents are made to feel guilty.
KEY STUDY: Scha er and Emerson (1964)
Aims
‣ To investigate whether there is a pattern of attachment formation common to all infants
‣ To look at the age at which they developed, their emotional intensity and to whom they
were attach to
Procedure Negatives:
‣ A longitudinal study • no controls
‣ 60 babies from Glasgow and from working-class families • no population or
‣ Mothers and babies were visited in their home every months for ecological validity
12 months and then again at 18 months • mother will be biased
‣ There were interviews with the mothers asking about separation when interviewed
and stranger anxiety
Page 3 of 24 A Level Psychology Paper 1
fi
fi fffiff ff ff
Attachment
Caregiver-infant interactions in humans
Reciprocity and interactional synchrony
Attachment: A two way emotional bond between two people, usually a parent and child,
in which each individual sees the other as essential for their own emotional security.
‣ Infants demonstrate attachment though 1. proximity seeking 2. separation distress and
3. a secure base
Reciprocity: A caregiver-infant interaction, which is a two-way process where each
responds to the other’s signals (facial expressions, verbal signals, behaviours) to sustain
the interaction, taking it in turns.
Caregiverse: The modi ed vocal language that an adult uses to interact with an infant to
aid communication and strengthen the bond.
Sensitive responsiveness: Recognising and responding appropriately to infants' needs
Interactional synchrony: The caregiver and infant re ect the actions and emotions of the
other in a co-ordinated (synchronised) way.
‣ High levels of synchrony are associated with better quality attachments (Isabella et al)
KEY STUDY: Meltzo and Moore (1977)
Aim
To conduct a systematic study of interactional synchrony to nd out of it exists in new
born infants.
Procedure
‣ A controlled observation was made on infants as young as two weeks old
‣ An adult model displayed 3 di erent facial expressions or hand gestures while a
dummy was in the infants mouth
‣ The dummy was removed and an observer watched the behaviour of the infant, noting
all instances of any tongue protrusions and head movements
‣ Each observer scored the tapes twice so the intra-observer and inter-observer (two
people test independently and then discuss their results) reliability could be calculated
Findings
you have to make inferences because
‣ There was an association between the infant the babies can’t give feedback
behaviour and the adult model
Conclusion
‣ Interactional synchrony is innate as the children are too young to have learnt it
Page 1 of 24 A Level Psychology Paper 1
fi ff ff fl fi
, Attachment
STRENGTH
P: There is supporting research evidence for the innate existence of caregiver
interactions such as interactional synchrony and caregiverse.
E: Meltzo and Moore (1977/1993) found that infants aged two weeks tended to mimic
adults’ speci c facial expressions and hand movements and later found the same in
infants as young as 3 days old.
E: Papousek et al (1991) found that the tendency to use a rising tone to show an infant
it was their turn in the interaction was cross-cultural as American, Chinese and German
mothers all exhibited the behaviour.
L: These interactions are innate not learned and are essential for making attachments
STRENGTH
P: The controlled observations captured micro-sequences of interaction.
E: The observations video behaviour from multiple angles and allow behaviour to be
observed. This enables ne details to be recorded and analysed.
E: The babies are so young so they don’t know they are being observed so they wont
change their response which can normally be a problem with observational research.
L: Findings will be high in validity so can be generalised in real life.
WEAKNESS
P: It is hard to know what is happening when observing infants and interactions babies
cannot communicate.
E: For example, what is being observed is merely facial movements and hand gestures
but are the infant’s movements conscious and deliberate? This means that we can only
make inferences about these types of behaviours and why they exist.
E: Feldman (2012) explained that synchrony (and reciprocity) simply describe the
behaviours occurring together rather they telling us their purpose.
L: Findings can’t truly tell us if they have a special meaning to create attachments.
CP: Isabella et al (1989) found high levels of synchrony in mother-infant interactions
were better associated with better quality mother-infant attachments.
The Role of the Father
Father as a secondary attachment Father in a nurturing role
‣ Sha er and Emerson found a secondary ‣ Field found fathers who
attachment gure as children attach to father later become PCG can develop
than a mother (speci c attachment) - 75% at 18 more sensitivity to children’s
months needs and become a secure-
‣ Fathers don’t o er as much interaction or are base
less sensitive in responding to infant’s signals ‣ Sensitive
‣ Grossman (2002) found quality of attachment in responsiveness is not
adolescence was related to quality of attachments gender speci c
with mothers and quality of play with fathers during
infancy
‣ Father’s attachment is less important as they
are for play
‣ Geiger (1996) found fathers’ are playmates rather
than caregivers as their play interactions are
pleasurable, whilst mothers’ are more nurturing
Page 2 of 24 A Level Psychology Paper 1
ff ff fififi ff fi fi
, Attachment
Father as a secondary attachment Father in a nurturing role
‣ Lamb (1987) found children prefer interacting with ‣ Frank et al (1997) looked at
fathers when in a positive emotional state but two-parent families where
mothers are preferred when they are distressed and the father is the PCG and
seek comfort found both parents often
‣ Hrdy (1999) found males are less biologically suited share the role, showing
to be the primary attachment gure as they are less fathers can develop a
able than mothers to detect infant distress, involving strong attachment infancy if
nurturing and sensitivity family circumstance allow
WEAKNESS
P: Psychologists focus on di erent research questions.
E: For example, some are interested in the role of the fathers as secondary attachment
gures focusing on how mothers and fathers behave di erently e.g. nurturing vs playful.
E: In contrast, others are more concerned with understanding their role as primary
attachment gures and discovering conditions that mean fathers take on a more
nurturing role.
L: Psychologist’s don’t have a clear answer to the question - a problem for researching.
WEAKNESS
P: Social biases prevent objective observation of the role of the father.
E: Preconceptions about how fathers behave, such as they go o to work and are sole
providers for the family, are created by common discussions about mothers’ and
fathers’ parenting behaviour.
E: These stereotypes may cause unintentional observer bias where the observers ‘see’
what they expect rather than recording actual reality.
L: Conclusions on the role of the father are hard to disentangle from social biases.
ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
E: Field showed the importance of nurture of a child in the formation of an attachment
and that gender doesn’t matter.
E: This could make working parents feel guilty that they aren’t with their child enough,
meaning one might leave work, bringing down the family income.
L: Economic implications could be large if parents are made to feel guilty.
KEY STUDY: Scha er and Emerson (1964)
Aims
‣ To investigate whether there is a pattern of attachment formation common to all infants
‣ To look at the age at which they developed, their emotional intensity and to whom they
were attach to
Procedure Negatives:
‣ A longitudinal study • no controls
‣ 60 babies from Glasgow and from working-class families • no population or
‣ Mothers and babies were visited in their home every months for ecological validity
12 months and then again at 18 months • mother will be biased
‣ There were interviews with the mothers asking about separation when interviewed
and stranger anxiety
Page 3 of 24 A Level Psychology Paper 1
fi
fi fffiff ff ff
