SLK 210 CHAPTER 3
FEEDING
Advantages of breastfeeding:
o The antibodies in breast milk provide the baby with vital protection against a
variety of diseases, such as intestinal and respiratory diseases and allergic
reactions.
o The nutrients in the milk, stimulate brain growth and myelination of the axons of
neurons, while cow’s milk primarily stimulates muscle growth.
o The baby digests milk more easily.
Less constipation and diarrhoea.
o Breastfed infants gain less weight and are leaner at 1 year than bottle-fed infants.
Growth patterns may prevent overweight and obesity.
o Sucking on the mother’s nipple rather than an artificial nipple, helps to avoid
malocclusion (the upper and lower jaw do not meet properly).
o You do not need to add other foods to the infant’s diet.
The milk of other mammals is low in iron.
o Breastfed infants accept new solid foods more easily than bottle-fed infants do.
o Breast milk is sterile and available at the correct temperature.
o Mothers who breastfeed have a lower incidence of breast and ovarian cancer.
If bottle-fed babies are held while they are drinking and not left to drink alone in their
cots, there is little difference between the two methods of feeding as far as
psychological advantages are concerned.
Breastfed babies may also ingest substances such as nicotine, alcohol, dagga, and other
drugs, as well as HIV, via their mother's milk.
Some mothers are biologically not able to breastfeed.
The mother who breastfeeds her baby merely because she feels obliged to do so could
harm the baby more because of her negative attitude, than if she is a relaxed, loving,
bottle-feeding mother.
, PIAGET’S VIEW OF THE FIRST 2 YEARS: SENSORIMOTOR
DEVELOPMENT
Piaget divides the cognitive development of children into 4 stages.
The sensorimotor stage
o Refers to infants who obtain their information through sensory input and motor
activities.
o Infants gradually develop the ability to coordinate information.
Eg. Seeing something and reaching out to touch it.
o Occurs in 6 substages.
Each substage represents a definite advance over the previous one.
o Early cognitive development occurs through circular reaction, through which the
infant learns to repeat pleasurable or interesting situations that were discovered
by chance previously.
This repetition becomes a cycle in which cause and effect continuously
influence each other.
o Substage 1: Reflexes (Birth- 1 month)
Newborns are tied to the immediate present, responding to whatever
stimuli are available.
Their actions are mostly reflexive, such as grasping or sucking.
Eg. If you stroke a baby’s mouth with your finger, it will suck
reflexively.
They do not seem to remember events or things from 1 encounter to the
next and do not appear to plan or intend.
o Substage 2: Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
This is marked by the beginning of coordination between listening and
looking, looking, and reaching, and reaching and sucking (ways infants
explore the world).
This is achieved through primary circular reactions, which refer to the
repletion of actions involving infants’ bodies.
Eg. Infants may accidentally suck their thumbs, find it pleasurable and
repeat it, and later repeat the action intentionally.
,o Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
This co-occurs with a new interest in the manipulation of objects.
Infants begin to repeat an action intentionally to trigger a response in the
environment.
Eg. The baby does something, the mother responds favourably, and
the baby repeats the behaviour, or the baby shakes a rattle
repeatedly to hear the sound.
The first connections between bodily actions and external consequences
are automatic, almost like operant conditioning.
o Substage 4: Coordination of secondary reactions (8-12 months)
Characterised by purposeful behaviour where there is a means to an end.
Eg. Pushing something out of the way to get to a toy, or to crawl
towards something that they are seeing.
They modify, coordinate, and try earlier schemas to find one that works.
This is the beginning of understanding cause and effect relationships.
o Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
Infants now vary their circular reactions to discover new methods of
meeting challenges.
Eg. Trying out different sounds or actions to get the attention of their
mothers.
During this stage, infants begin to walk, making exploring their
environment explore.
Infants in this substage have been described as young scientists who
conduct experiments.
They show originality in problem-solving and use trial and error to try to
find the best way to reach a goal.
, o Substage 6: Mental representation (18-24 months)
Marks the beginning of insight and real creativity.
The infant develops the ability to use mental symbols such as words,
numbers, or images to represent objects, events, or actions.
Mental representation also indicates that the infant is beginning to use
mental planning instead of the trial-and-error approach.
Eg. A 2-year-old who knows there are cookies in the cookie jar on the
kitchen counter can figure out how to get one, even pulling a chair
closer to climb on, to reach the desired object.
Cognitive skills in the sensorimotor stage
o One of the most important characteristics that develop during the sensorimotor
stage is object permanence.
This is the understanding that objects continue to exist when they cannot
be seen anymore.
o Before 8 months old, it is a matter of ‘out of sight out of mind.”
Eg. Infants will not search for a toy when it is covered with a blanket.
o 8-12 months infants start grasping the concept of object permanence.
Eg. If you cover a toy with a blanket, the baby will pull the blanket away to
uncover the toy.
o Object permanence is not complete in substage 4.
Eg. Should you hide infants’ toys under a container (A) where they will
discover it multiple times, then hide in front of them into another container
(B), infants usually continue to look under container (A).
o This A-not-B error is also called preserving search.
o During substage 5 (12-18 months), infants still have problems with certain aspects
of object permanence, especially invisible displacement.
Eg. If you have a toy in your hand and put it under a pillow and then
remove your hand, leaving the toy under the pillow, the infant will look for
the toy in your hand.
o Infants fully master the understanding of object permanence only at the age of 18-
24 months.
FEEDING
Advantages of breastfeeding:
o The antibodies in breast milk provide the baby with vital protection against a
variety of diseases, such as intestinal and respiratory diseases and allergic
reactions.
o The nutrients in the milk, stimulate brain growth and myelination of the axons of
neurons, while cow’s milk primarily stimulates muscle growth.
o The baby digests milk more easily.
Less constipation and diarrhoea.
o Breastfed infants gain less weight and are leaner at 1 year than bottle-fed infants.
Growth patterns may prevent overweight and obesity.
o Sucking on the mother’s nipple rather than an artificial nipple, helps to avoid
malocclusion (the upper and lower jaw do not meet properly).
o You do not need to add other foods to the infant’s diet.
The milk of other mammals is low in iron.
o Breastfed infants accept new solid foods more easily than bottle-fed infants do.
o Breast milk is sterile and available at the correct temperature.
o Mothers who breastfeed have a lower incidence of breast and ovarian cancer.
If bottle-fed babies are held while they are drinking and not left to drink alone in their
cots, there is little difference between the two methods of feeding as far as
psychological advantages are concerned.
Breastfed babies may also ingest substances such as nicotine, alcohol, dagga, and other
drugs, as well as HIV, via their mother's milk.
Some mothers are biologically not able to breastfeed.
The mother who breastfeeds her baby merely because she feels obliged to do so could
harm the baby more because of her negative attitude, than if she is a relaxed, loving,
bottle-feeding mother.
, PIAGET’S VIEW OF THE FIRST 2 YEARS: SENSORIMOTOR
DEVELOPMENT
Piaget divides the cognitive development of children into 4 stages.
The sensorimotor stage
o Refers to infants who obtain their information through sensory input and motor
activities.
o Infants gradually develop the ability to coordinate information.
Eg. Seeing something and reaching out to touch it.
o Occurs in 6 substages.
Each substage represents a definite advance over the previous one.
o Early cognitive development occurs through circular reaction, through which the
infant learns to repeat pleasurable or interesting situations that were discovered
by chance previously.
This repetition becomes a cycle in which cause and effect continuously
influence each other.
o Substage 1: Reflexes (Birth- 1 month)
Newborns are tied to the immediate present, responding to whatever
stimuli are available.
Their actions are mostly reflexive, such as grasping or sucking.
Eg. If you stroke a baby’s mouth with your finger, it will suck
reflexively.
They do not seem to remember events or things from 1 encounter to the
next and do not appear to plan or intend.
o Substage 2: Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
This is marked by the beginning of coordination between listening and
looking, looking, and reaching, and reaching and sucking (ways infants
explore the world).
This is achieved through primary circular reactions, which refer to the
repletion of actions involving infants’ bodies.
Eg. Infants may accidentally suck their thumbs, find it pleasurable and
repeat it, and later repeat the action intentionally.
,o Substage 3: Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
This co-occurs with a new interest in the manipulation of objects.
Infants begin to repeat an action intentionally to trigger a response in the
environment.
Eg. The baby does something, the mother responds favourably, and
the baby repeats the behaviour, or the baby shakes a rattle
repeatedly to hear the sound.
The first connections between bodily actions and external consequences
are automatic, almost like operant conditioning.
o Substage 4: Coordination of secondary reactions (8-12 months)
Characterised by purposeful behaviour where there is a means to an end.
Eg. Pushing something out of the way to get to a toy, or to crawl
towards something that they are seeing.
They modify, coordinate, and try earlier schemas to find one that works.
This is the beginning of understanding cause and effect relationships.
o Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)
Infants now vary their circular reactions to discover new methods of
meeting challenges.
Eg. Trying out different sounds or actions to get the attention of their
mothers.
During this stage, infants begin to walk, making exploring their
environment explore.
Infants in this substage have been described as young scientists who
conduct experiments.
They show originality in problem-solving and use trial and error to try to
find the best way to reach a goal.
, o Substage 6: Mental representation (18-24 months)
Marks the beginning of insight and real creativity.
The infant develops the ability to use mental symbols such as words,
numbers, or images to represent objects, events, or actions.
Mental representation also indicates that the infant is beginning to use
mental planning instead of the trial-and-error approach.
Eg. A 2-year-old who knows there are cookies in the cookie jar on the
kitchen counter can figure out how to get one, even pulling a chair
closer to climb on, to reach the desired object.
Cognitive skills in the sensorimotor stage
o One of the most important characteristics that develop during the sensorimotor
stage is object permanence.
This is the understanding that objects continue to exist when they cannot
be seen anymore.
o Before 8 months old, it is a matter of ‘out of sight out of mind.”
Eg. Infants will not search for a toy when it is covered with a blanket.
o 8-12 months infants start grasping the concept of object permanence.
Eg. If you cover a toy with a blanket, the baby will pull the blanket away to
uncover the toy.
o Object permanence is not complete in substage 4.
Eg. Should you hide infants’ toys under a container (A) where they will
discover it multiple times, then hide in front of them into another container
(B), infants usually continue to look under container (A).
o This A-not-B error is also called preserving search.
o During substage 5 (12-18 months), infants still have problems with certain aspects
of object permanence, especially invisible displacement.
Eg. If you have a toy in your hand and put it under a pillow and then
remove your hand, leaving the toy under the pillow, the infant will look for
the toy in your hand.
o Infants fully master the understanding of object permanence only at the age of 18-
24 months.
