Research Methodology Lecture Notes
Lecture 1
Product: Knowledge
As description
- Not ambiguous
- Makes use of concepts an constructs to describe phenomena
- Describe a phenomenon
As explanation and prediction
- The goal is to create theories
- Give an explanation why something occurs (often in terms of causes-and-effects)
Exploratory = something unknown, new or deviant
Knowledge does not refer to the truth! is better understood as a state in which we are as close to
the truth as we have come so far. science is a continuous process
Scientific Research as a product
Producing as a scientific researcher: doing research at the university, doing research in an institute
Approaches to social research – typical characteristics
Experiment
Manipulation of the “cause” (= test condition, independent variable or treatment)
The researcher is in control of the treatment (cause)
Outcome variable (consequence or result) is measured after the manipulation
Use comparable groups ( composition groups to compare should be similar, only differing in
test condition)
Survey research
o Use of questionnaires (oral or self-administered)
o Large and representative samples
, o Efficient method of data collection
Research design (set-up)
1. Create up a questionnaire (which behaviours and personal characteristics should be asked?)
2. Submit the questionnaire (when and how?)
3. Analyse collected data
Field research
Direct observation of behaviour
Naturalistic setting
Non-reactive measurement is possible ‘sampling-in-the-field’ (you define a situation while
doing the research)
Determining the approach: interviews, observations?
Determine the role of the researcher: participant/researchers, whether or not to make
themselves known, personal relationship with participants?
Available data
Data that are present, without the need of interference with the researcher
Non-reactive measurement
Multiple sources: documents, physical evidence, artefacts…
Warning: ‘present’ does not imply that the researcher does not need to look for the data
Altruism: helping behaviour that is motivated purely by the desire to help others, without
anticipating personal rewards and often at the expense of the person helping.
Science as a process
Theories hypotheses (deduction) observations empirical generalizations (induction)
theories…..
Qualitative- signalizing, often observation leads to theory development (induction)
Do findings match expectations arising from quantitative research? (deduction)
Data theory (induction)
Possibly adjust or even refute theory (induction)
Quantitative- testing theory/ hypothesis (deduction). Possibly adjust or even refute theory
(induction).
By means of available data describe the state of affairs (induction)
,Concepts, variables and hypotheses = essential elements
Concepts (constructs) = general or abstract description of a social phenomenon e.g. intelligence
If a concept has been developed for scientific purposes, we also call it a construct (e.g. extraversion,
social cohesion, altruism)
Variable = empirical manifestations of a concept e.g. a scale that measures intelligence
Characteristics of units that can vary, taking on different values or categories for different
observations, are called variables
Hypothesis = an expected relationship between variables that can be researched or tested e.g.
woman are on average more intelligent than men.
Scientific research questions are those that allow to be answered by means of empirical research
Scientific: asking about how and why certain phenomena occur
Not scientific: asking about what would be ‘good’ or ‘desirable’
To formulate a scientific research question, we need to know:
1. What is interesting
2. What a ‘concept’ is
3. What scientific knowledge
, Hypothesis
Definition:
Hypothesis = a supposition or conjecture put forth to account for known facts
In science, a hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research question the expected results of the
research
= ‘an expected but unconfirmed relationship between variables’
Hypothesis can come from various sources, for example theory and previous research, direct
observations, guesses and intuition
- Provides a prediction/expectation of the results of the research.
- Written as a statement concise and should be testable and therefore falsifiable (can be
proven wrong)
Lecture 1
Product: Knowledge
As description
- Not ambiguous
- Makes use of concepts an constructs to describe phenomena
- Describe a phenomenon
As explanation and prediction
- The goal is to create theories
- Give an explanation why something occurs (often in terms of causes-and-effects)
Exploratory = something unknown, new or deviant
Knowledge does not refer to the truth! is better understood as a state in which we are as close to
the truth as we have come so far. science is a continuous process
Scientific Research as a product
Producing as a scientific researcher: doing research at the university, doing research in an institute
Approaches to social research – typical characteristics
Experiment
Manipulation of the “cause” (= test condition, independent variable or treatment)
The researcher is in control of the treatment (cause)
Outcome variable (consequence or result) is measured after the manipulation
Use comparable groups ( composition groups to compare should be similar, only differing in
test condition)
Survey research
o Use of questionnaires (oral or self-administered)
o Large and representative samples
, o Efficient method of data collection
Research design (set-up)
1. Create up a questionnaire (which behaviours and personal characteristics should be asked?)
2. Submit the questionnaire (when and how?)
3. Analyse collected data
Field research
Direct observation of behaviour
Naturalistic setting
Non-reactive measurement is possible ‘sampling-in-the-field’ (you define a situation while
doing the research)
Determining the approach: interviews, observations?
Determine the role of the researcher: participant/researchers, whether or not to make
themselves known, personal relationship with participants?
Available data
Data that are present, without the need of interference with the researcher
Non-reactive measurement
Multiple sources: documents, physical evidence, artefacts…
Warning: ‘present’ does not imply that the researcher does not need to look for the data
Altruism: helping behaviour that is motivated purely by the desire to help others, without
anticipating personal rewards and often at the expense of the person helping.
Science as a process
Theories hypotheses (deduction) observations empirical generalizations (induction)
theories…..
Qualitative- signalizing, often observation leads to theory development (induction)
Do findings match expectations arising from quantitative research? (deduction)
Data theory (induction)
Possibly adjust or even refute theory (induction)
Quantitative- testing theory/ hypothesis (deduction). Possibly adjust or even refute theory
(induction).
By means of available data describe the state of affairs (induction)
,Concepts, variables and hypotheses = essential elements
Concepts (constructs) = general or abstract description of a social phenomenon e.g. intelligence
If a concept has been developed for scientific purposes, we also call it a construct (e.g. extraversion,
social cohesion, altruism)
Variable = empirical manifestations of a concept e.g. a scale that measures intelligence
Characteristics of units that can vary, taking on different values or categories for different
observations, are called variables
Hypothesis = an expected relationship between variables that can be researched or tested e.g.
woman are on average more intelligent than men.
Scientific research questions are those that allow to be answered by means of empirical research
Scientific: asking about how and why certain phenomena occur
Not scientific: asking about what would be ‘good’ or ‘desirable’
To formulate a scientific research question, we need to know:
1. What is interesting
2. What a ‘concept’ is
3. What scientific knowledge
, Hypothesis
Definition:
Hypothesis = a supposition or conjecture put forth to account for known facts
In science, a hypothesis is a tentative answer to a research question the expected results of the
research
= ‘an expected but unconfirmed relationship between variables’
Hypothesis can come from various sources, for example theory and previous research, direct
observations, guesses and intuition
- Provides a prediction/expectation of the results of the research.
- Written as a statement concise and should be testable and therefore falsifiable (can be
proven wrong)
