Qualitative Methods
Summary
1. Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods
Because of the ongoing development in the broad domain of qualitative research is hard to give a
clear definition. John W. Creswell’s example emphasizes that qualitative research involves
starting with assumptions, using interpretive/ theoretical frameworks, and studying the meaning
individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem. The process includes data
collection in natural settings, employing both inductive and deductive data analysis to establish
patterns or themes.
Qualitative researchers are reluctant to generalize from one case to another because the context
of cases differ.
Qualitative: studies reasons, meanings, and sense behind actions, analyzing meaning through
oral communication, texts, and images.
The characteristics of qualitative research methods:
Holistic;
Theoretical sampling;
Iterative;
Studies motivations;
Provides depth of understanding;
Subjective;
Enables discovery;
Exploratory, open;
Allows insights into behaviors, trends, etc...;
Interprets
‘’why’’?;
Interpretative analysis.
Qualitative research would be best suited if you want to do research on a new trend in society
that has not been investigated before. Especially in exploratory research we need to be open to
context and unexpected circumstances, which qualitative research helps us to do.
Quantitative: focuses on numerical patterns, asking ‘’how many’’ people practice ‘’how many’’
behaviors, often using surveys.
Inductive analysis: starts with specific observations to generate broader theories. Making an
inference or drawing general conclusions based on empirical observations in a particular
situation.
Deductive analysis: begins with existing theories or hypotheses, testing them against specific
observations. Deriving a hypothesis by means of logical reasoning based on preset on empirical
observations in a particular situation.
Case study research: focus on the in-depth (holistic) description and analysis of single or multiple
cases, for the purpose of grasping the specificity, complexity and functioning of these cases.
You need to set up your research in such a way that validity and reliability are as much as
possible guaranteed. So do your observations cover what you intended to observe? This is what is
called internal validity. Are your observations also valid for other cases? Can they be generalized?
This is what is called external validity. And could another researcher replicate your observations,
,or would respondents provide more of less the same answers if they were asked again? This is
what is called reliability.
Validity: the way the analysis results represent what they are supposed to represent in the
current situation, and how far they can be generally applied to other situations.
Construct validity: establishing correct operational measures for the concepts being studied.
Internal Validity: the research set up makes sure that the causal relations under investigation can
be unambivalently be determined.
External Validity: the research set up makes sure that the results can also be representative for
other cases/ situations.
Reliability: The way in which the results of the analysis can be reproduced, and are robust for
disturbing influences.
Representation: data that are not necessarily objective facts, but are at best representations or
expressions of factual situations.
Subjectivity: The way individual personal judgment is shaped by personal opinions and feelings,
as well as meanings allocated to the situation by the person being confronted.
Exploratory: Methodological approach attempting to discover the hitherto unknown, and thus to
contribute to theory building.
Confirmatory: Methodological approach attempting to find confirmation of theoretically derived
hypotheses.
Research design: Important decisions the researcher needs to make about the wat the researcher
wants to answer the research questions, such as:
General setting, like the temporal and spatial setting;
Which general methods would help to find answers;
How to collect data (including sampling methods);
What methods to use to analyze data;
Ethical issues;
How to report results.
2
, 2. Theoretical Background for Qualitative Research Methods
Philosophical roots and historical development
In the natural sciences quantitative approaches, explaining causal relationships, are common and
dominant. In the social sciences and humanities qualitative approaches, explicating the
subjective reasons for human actions and interactions, are much more common, and do not aim
for explanation but for understanding.
The positivistic approach of Augustus Comte focuses on empirical testing and objectivity.
Positivism is an approach that assumes we can objectively observe through sensory observation
the utter facts of reality or derive them by reason and logic.
Edmund Husserl’s Phenomenological perspective acknowledges subjectivity in human
experience. An approach that assumes that we can only observe the world through the lens of our
subjectivity, and therefore the subjective way the world appears to us as a 'phenomenon' is the
only basis of our knowledge.
The interpretive approach of qualitative research focuses on the role of interpretations,
intentions of investigators, and attributing meaning to phenomena.
Interpretive method: a method in which qualitative data er not taken at face value, but which
uses techniques for understanding what might have been meant while taking the specific context
and subjective intentions into account.
Researcher inevitably carry personal beliefs and philosophical assumptions into their work,
shaped by experiences, education, readings, and interactions with scholarly communities.
Ontology: is related to your assumptions about the nature of reality. Most researchers conducting
qualitative research assume that reality can be observed and experienced from different
perspectives, resulting in different accounts of reality, or you might even say 'different realities'.
So most qualitative research is set up to uncover these different perspectives and realities (the
nature of reality).
Epistemology: is related to your assumptions about what you believe to know or could know
about reality and what you believe is needed to be sure about what you know. Openness to new
aspects and understanding participants’ context is valued.
Axiology: is related to your values in your research. In some approaches to research, it is
assumed that the researcher should try to keep distance to the object of research. However, in
qualitative research, it is usually assumed that we can not avoid being highly engaged and
involved in our research. Your own values will therefore certainly play a role in your observations
and interpretations.
Methodology: is related to what we believe to be a sound method for collecting and analyzing
data. For instance, most researchers conducting qualitative research share that we cannot know
exactly in advance what scientific propositions (hypotheses) we need to test empirically, and thus
our findings are less driven by our prior knowledge and more by what we unexpectedly chance
upon in the way of findings.
Philosophical assumptions
(Post)positivism: a philosophy that stated that scientific knowledge can only come from positive
affirmation of theories through strict scientific method. Theories can be generalized and have
predictive capabilities but are always subject to potential falsification.
3
Summary
1. Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods
Because of the ongoing development in the broad domain of qualitative research is hard to give a
clear definition. John W. Creswell’s example emphasizes that qualitative research involves
starting with assumptions, using interpretive/ theoretical frameworks, and studying the meaning
individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem. The process includes data
collection in natural settings, employing both inductive and deductive data analysis to establish
patterns or themes.
Qualitative researchers are reluctant to generalize from one case to another because the context
of cases differ.
Qualitative: studies reasons, meanings, and sense behind actions, analyzing meaning through
oral communication, texts, and images.
The characteristics of qualitative research methods:
Holistic;
Theoretical sampling;
Iterative;
Studies motivations;
Provides depth of understanding;
Subjective;
Enables discovery;
Exploratory, open;
Allows insights into behaviors, trends, etc...;
Interprets
‘’why’’?;
Interpretative analysis.
Qualitative research would be best suited if you want to do research on a new trend in society
that has not been investigated before. Especially in exploratory research we need to be open to
context and unexpected circumstances, which qualitative research helps us to do.
Quantitative: focuses on numerical patterns, asking ‘’how many’’ people practice ‘’how many’’
behaviors, often using surveys.
Inductive analysis: starts with specific observations to generate broader theories. Making an
inference or drawing general conclusions based on empirical observations in a particular
situation.
Deductive analysis: begins with existing theories or hypotheses, testing them against specific
observations. Deriving a hypothesis by means of logical reasoning based on preset on empirical
observations in a particular situation.
Case study research: focus on the in-depth (holistic) description and analysis of single or multiple
cases, for the purpose of grasping the specificity, complexity and functioning of these cases.
You need to set up your research in such a way that validity and reliability are as much as
possible guaranteed. So do your observations cover what you intended to observe? This is what is
called internal validity. Are your observations also valid for other cases? Can they be generalized?
This is what is called external validity. And could another researcher replicate your observations,
,or would respondents provide more of less the same answers if they were asked again? This is
what is called reliability.
Validity: the way the analysis results represent what they are supposed to represent in the
current situation, and how far they can be generally applied to other situations.
Construct validity: establishing correct operational measures for the concepts being studied.
Internal Validity: the research set up makes sure that the causal relations under investigation can
be unambivalently be determined.
External Validity: the research set up makes sure that the results can also be representative for
other cases/ situations.
Reliability: The way in which the results of the analysis can be reproduced, and are robust for
disturbing influences.
Representation: data that are not necessarily objective facts, but are at best representations or
expressions of factual situations.
Subjectivity: The way individual personal judgment is shaped by personal opinions and feelings,
as well as meanings allocated to the situation by the person being confronted.
Exploratory: Methodological approach attempting to discover the hitherto unknown, and thus to
contribute to theory building.
Confirmatory: Methodological approach attempting to find confirmation of theoretically derived
hypotheses.
Research design: Important decisions the researcher needs to make about the wat the researcher
wants to answer the research questions, such as:
General setting, like the temporal and spatial setting;
Which general methods would help to find answers;
How to collect data (including sampling methods);
What methods to use to analyze data;
Ethical issues;
How to report results.
2
, 2. Theoretical Background for Qualitative Research Methods
Philosophical roots and historical development
In the natural sciences quantitative approaches, explaining causal relationships, are common and
dominant. In the social sciences and humanities qualitative approaches, explicating the
subjective reasons for human actions and interactions, are much more common, and do not aim
for explanation but for understanding.
The positivistic approach of Augustus Comte focuses on empirical testing and objectivity.
Positivism is an approach that assumes we can objectively observe through sensory observation
the utter facts of reality or derive them by reason and logic.
Edmund Husserl’s Phenomenological perspective acknowledges subjectivity in human
experience. An approach that assumes that we can only observe the world through the lens of our
subjectivity, and therefore the subjective way the world appears to us as a 'phenomenon' is the
only basis of our knowledge.
The interpretive approach of qualitative research focuses on the role of interpretations,
intentions of investigators, and attributing meaning to phenomena.
Interpretive method: a method in which qualitative data er not taken at face value, but which
uses techniques for understanding what might have been meant while taking the specific context
and subjective intentions into account.
Researcher inevitably carry personal beliefs and philosophical assumptions into their work,
shaped by experiences, education, readings, and interactions with scholarly communities.
Ontology: is related to your assumptions about the nature of reality. Most researchers conducting
qualitative research assume that reality can be observed and experienced from different
perspectives, resulting in different accounts of reality, or you might even say 'different realities'.
So most qualitative research is set up to uncover these different perspectives and realities (the
nature of reality).
Epistemology: is related to your assumptions about what you believe to know or could know
about reality and what you believe is needed to be sure about what you know. Openness to new
aspects and understanding participants’ context is valued.
Axiology: is related to your values in your research. In some approaches to research, it is
assumed that the researcher should try to keep distance to the object of research. However, in
qualitative research, it is usually assumed that we can not avoid being highly engaged and
involved in our research. Your own values will therefore certainly play a role in your observations
and interpretations.
Methodology: is related to what we believe to be a sound method for collecting and analyzing
data. For instance, most researchers conducting qualitative research share that we cannot know
exactly in advance what scientific propositions (hypotheses) we need to test empirically, and thus
our findings are less driven by our prior knowledge and more by what we unexpectedly chance
upon in the way of findings.
Philosophical assumptions
(Post)positivism: a philosophy that stated that scientific knowledge can only come from positive
affirmation of theories through strict scientific method. Theories can be generalized and have
predictive capabilities but are always subject to potential falsification.
3
