SUMMARY FUNCTIONAL NEUROANATOMY
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system sends and receives signals to and from the skeletal muscles. The spinal cord is the main sensory pathway
from the peripheral nervous system to and from the brain. Inside the spinal cord is grey and white matter. The white matter are
the less myelinated axons.
There are sensory (dorsal roots) and motor pathways (ventral roots).
Neuro-navigation:
• Ventral/anterior: on the front (belly) side
• Dorsal/posterior: on the back (tail) side
• Superior/cranial: on the top (skull) side
• Inferior: on the lower side
• Caudal: in the lowermost position (at the tail end)
• Rostral: on the forward side (at the nose end)
• Medial: closer to or toward the middle
• Median: in the middle
• Lateral: toward the side (away from the middle)
• Ipsilateral: on the same side
• Contralateral: on the opposite side
• Bilateral: on both sides of the neuraxis (imaginary line through the length of the
nervous system)
• Coronal: front and back halves
• Horizontal sections: parallel to the ground
• Saggital section: symmetrical left and right halves
There are two nervous systems:
Central nervous system (CNS): the skull and spine
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): outside the skull and spine
• Somatic nervous system:
o Voluntary control of the body movements via the use of skeletal muscles.
o Afferent nerves: carry motor signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, eyes, and ears to the brain.
o Efferent nerves: carry motor signals from the nervous system to the skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
o Tries to maintain homeostasis in the body. It controls the inner organs and small intestine muscles.
o Afferent nerves: carry sensory signals from the internal organs to the CNS.
o Efferent nerves: carry motor signals from the CNS to the internal organs.
o Sympathetic nerves:
▪ Autonomic motor nerves → from CNS to spinal cord
▪ Fight-or-flight-reaction
o Parasympathetic nerves:
▪ Nerves that project from the brain and the lower back regions of the spinal cord.
▪ Preserve energy.
▪ Relax and digest.
o The sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves open up/restrict blood flow depending on the outside stimuli.
, Brain (encephalon) Cerebrum (forebrain) Telencephalon Cerebral cortex
Subcortical white matter
Commissures
Basal ganglia
Diencephalon Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
Subthalamus
Cerebellar nuclei
Brain stem Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Pons
Medulla
Spinal cord White matter Dorsal columns
Medulla
Lateral columns
Grey matter Anterior columns
Meninges (membranes):
The brain and spinal cord are encased in bone and covered by protective membranes. There are 3 meninges:
• Dura mater: outer meninx
• Arachnoid membrane: middle meninx
• Subarachnoid space: contains large blood vessel and cerebrospinal fluid. It consists of the central canal of the brain,
spinal cord, and the cerebral ventricles of the brain.
• Pia mater: innermost meninx
Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):
The cerebrospinal fluid protects the central nervous system. It fills the subarachnoid space. It is a clear fluid.
The ventricular system consists of hollow, interconnected chambers, filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The largest chamber is the 3rd
ventricle. The ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid.
THE BRAIN
, The forebrain:
• Includes the telencephalon and diencephalon.
• The cerebral hemisphere is covered by the cerebral cortex.
• The cerebrum consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres.
• Sulcus: groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere
• Fissure: major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus
• Gyrus: convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or
fissures.
• Telencephalon:
o Complex cognition
o 2 cerebral hemispheres
▪ Left: analysis and controlling sequences of behaviour (talking,
understanding speech, writing)
▪ Right: synthesis and putting isolated information together and creating a whole (reading maps,
constructing 3D objects).
o Consists of the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia.
▪ Cerebral cortex surrounds the cerebral hemispheres and is
folded, which enlarges the brain surface area. It consists
mostly of glia, cell bodies, dendrites, and interconnecting
axons. The cell bodies are predominant → mostly grey
matter.
• Lobes of the cerebral cortex:
o Frontal lobe
o Parietal lobe
o Temporal lobe
o Occipital lobe
• Sensory cortex:
o Primary visual cortex: receives visual
information
o Primary auditory cortex: receives auditory
information
o Primary somatosensory cortex: receives information about the body senses
• Sensory association cortex:
o Each primary sensory area sends information to the sensory association cortex.
Information is here analyzed and stored.
o Areas in the sensory association cortex close to one primary sensory area receive
information only from this cortex. Areas further away from primary sensory areas are
responsible for integration and
connection of primary sensory
information.
• Motor cortex:
o Primary motor cortex: area most
directly involved in the control of
movement.
o Neurons in the primary motor area are
contralaterally connected to muscles
in different parts of the body.
• Motor association cortex:
o Planning and execution of movement
o Directly controls behaviour.
▪ Limbic system: group of brain regions including anterior
thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex and
parts of the hypothalamus.
▪ Basal ganglia: control of movement
o Fornix: fiber bundle connecting the hippocampus with other parts of the
brain.
• Diencephalon:
o Thalamus:
▪ Consists of 2 lobes, connected by grey matter (massa intermedia)
▪ Most neural input is received by the thalamus.
▪ Lateral geniculate nucleus: receives information from the eye, sends axons to the primary visual cortex.
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system sends and receives signals to and from the skeletal muscles. The spinal cord is the main sensory pathway
from the peripheral nervous system to and from the brain. Inside the spinal cord is grey and white matter. The white matter are
the less myelinated axons.
There are sensory (dorsal roots) and motor pathways (ventral roots).
Neuro-navigation:
• Ventral/anterior: on the front (belly) side
• Dorsal/posterior: on the back (tail) side
• Superior/cranial: on the top (skull) side
• Inferior: on the lower side
• Caudal: in the lowermost position (at the tail end)
• Rostral: on the forward side (at the nose end)
• Medial: closer to or toward the middle
• Median: in the middle
• Lateral: toward the side (away from the middle)
• Ipsilateral: on the same side
• Contralateral: on the opposite side
• Bilateral: on both sides of the neuraxis (imaginary line through the length of the
nervous system)
• Coronal: front and back halves
• Horizontal sections: parallel to the ground
• Saggital section: symmetrical left and right halves
There are two nervous systems:
Central nervous system (CNS): the skull and spine
Peripheral nervous system (PNS): outside the skull and spine
• Somatic nervous system:
o Voluntary control of the body movements via the use of skeletal muscles.
o Afferent nerves: carry motor signals from the skin, skeletal muscles, joints, eyes, and ears to the brain.
o Efferent nerves: carry motor signals from the nervous system to the skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
o Tries to maintain homeostasis in the body. It controls the inner organs and small intestine muscles.
o Afferent nerves: carry sensory signals from the internal organs to the CNS.
o Efferent nerves: carry motor signals from the CNS to the internal organs.
o Sympathetic nerves:
▪ Autonomic motor nerves → from CNS to spinal cord
▪ Fight-or-flight-reaction
o Parasympathetic nerves:
▪ Nerves that project from the brain and the lower back regions of the spinal cord.
▪ Preserve energy.
▪ Relax and digest.
o The sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves open up/restrict blood flow depending on the outside stimuli.
, Brain (encephalon) Cerebrum (forebrain) Telencephalon Cerebral cortex
Subcortical white matter
Commissures
Basal ganglia
Diencephalon Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Epithalamus
Subthalamus
Cerebellar nuclei
Brain stem Midbrain (mesencephalon)
Pons
Medulla
Spinal cord White matter Dorsal columns
Medulla
Lateral columns
Grey matter Anterior columns
Meninges (membranes):
The brain and spinal cord are encased in bone and covered by protective membranes. There are 3 meninges:
• Dura mater: outer meninx
• Arachnoid membrane: middle meninx
• Subarachnoid space: contains large blood vessel and cerebrospinal fluid. It consists of the central canal of the brain,
spinal cord, and the cerebral ventricles of the brain.
• Pia mater: innermost meninx
Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):
The cerebrospinal fluid protects the central nervous system. It fills the subarachnoid space. It is a clear fluid.
The ventricular system consists of hollow, interconnected chambers, filled with cerebrospinal fluid. The largest chamber is the 3rd
ventricle. The ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid.
THE BRAIN
, The forebrain:
• Includes the telencephalon and diencephalon.
• The cerebral hemisphere is covered by the cerebral cortex.
• The cerebrum consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres.
• Sulcus: groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere
• Fissure: major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a sulcus
• Gyrus: convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, separated by sulci or
fissures.
• Telencephalon:
o Complex cognition
o 2 cerebral hemispheres
▪ Left: analysis and controlling sequences of behaviour (talking,
understanding speech, writing)
▪ Right: synthesis and putting isolated information together and creating a whole (reading maps,
constructing 3D objects).
o Consists of the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia.
▪ Cerebral cortex surrounds the cerebral hemispheres and is
folded, which enlarges the brain surface area. It consists
mostly of glia, cell bodies, dendrites, and interconnecting
axons. The cell bodies are predominant → mostly grey
matter.
• Lobes of the cerebral cortex:
o Frontal lobe
o Parietal lobe
o Temporal lobe
o Occipital lobe
• Sensory cortex:
o Primary visual cortex: receives visual
information
o Primary auditory cortex: receives auditory
information
o Primary somatosensory cortex: receives information about the body senses
• Sensory association cortex:
o Each primary sensory area sends information to the sensory association cortex.
Information is here analyzed and stored.
o Areas in the sensory association cortex close to one primary sensory area receive
information only from this cortex. Areas further away from primary sensory areas are
responsible for integration and
connection of primary sensory
information.
• Motor cortex:
o Primary motor cortex: area most
directly involved in the control of
movement.
o Neurons in the primary motor area are
contralaterally connected to muscles
in different parts of the body.
• Motor association cortex:
o Planning and execution of movement
o Directly controls behaviour.
▪ Limbic system: group of brain regions including anterior
thalamic nuclei, amygdala, hippocampus, limbic cortex and
parts of the hypothalamus.
▪ Basal ganglia: control of movement
o Fornix: fiber bundle connecting the hippocampus with other parts of the
brain.
• Diencephalon:
o Thalamus:
▪ Consists of 2 lobes, connected by grey matter (massa intermedia)
▪ Most neural input is received by the thalamus.
▪ Lateral geniculate nucleus: receives information from the eye, sends axons to the primary visual cortex.
