Lecture 1. Brain Basics
1. Name 6 cerebral arteries
Star&ng from the spine, two main roads, known as the vertebral arteries
merge into a bigger one, the basilar artery. This artery divides into three
arteries in the Circle of Willis: the posterior cerebral artery, the middle
cerebral artery, and the anterior cerebral artery. To keep everything
connected, there are smaller (communica&ng) arteries: the posterior
communica<ng artery and the anterior communica<ng artery.
2. Name 2 cerebral veins
• Superior sagi@al sinus: located along the midline of the brain’s upper
surface
• Transverse sinus: located laterally on either side of the brain
• Inferior cerebral veins: located within the hemispheres of the brain
3. Name the structures forming the blood-brain
The BBB is composed of endothelial cells (ECs), pericytes (PCs), capillary basement membrane, and astrocyte end-
feet.
4. Explain the transport of glucose over the BBB and into astrocytes and neurons
Glucose is transported across the BBB into the brain primarily via GLUT-1 transporters which are posi&oned in the
endothelial cells of the BBB. Once inside the brain, glucose is taken up by astrocytes (via GLUT-1) and neurons (via
GLUT-3), where it is metabolized to produce energy and support various cellular func&ons.
5. Name 2 processes glucose regulates in the brain
• Energy Metabolism: Glucose is the primary energy substrate for the brain. Neurons and astrocytes u&lize
glucose to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through cellular respira&on. This process provides the
necessary energy for maintaining neuronal func&on, synap&c transmission, ac&on poten&al genera&on, and
other essen&al cellular ac&vi&es.
• Neurotransmi@er Synthesis and Release: Glucose availability influences the synthesis and release of
neurotransmiKers in the brain. NeurotransmiKers are chemical messengers that transmit signals between
neurons. Glucose serves as a precursor for the synthesis of certain neurotransmiKers, such as glutamate and
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Proper neurotransmiKer synthesis and release are crucial for regula&ng mood,
behavior, cogni&on, and various physiological processes.
The level of glucose is sensed and regulated by the hypothalamus and the vagus nervus!
6. Explain the reac<on of microglia and astrocytes in neuroinflamma<on
Microglia are the resident immune cells of the CNS and act as the first line of defense against pathogens and injury. In
response to neuroinflammatory s&muli, microglia can become ac<vated, undergoing morphological and func&onal
changes (shrink and thick). Besides that, microglia play a crucial role in phagocytosing cellular debris, pathogens, and
aggregated proteins, contribu&ng to the clearance of poten&ally harmful substances from the CNS. However, in
response to neuroinflammatory s&muli, astrocytes can also undergo a process called reac<ve gliosis, characterized by
hypertrophy (increase in the number, thickness, and length).
7. Name at least two neurotransmi@ers, their precursors and via which food you can obtain it
Neurotransmi@er Precursor Food
Serotonin Trypthophan Egg white and Soybeans
Dopamine Tyrosine (L-DOPA) Chicken, Milk, Peanuts, Almonds,
Sesame seeds
Noradrenaline Tyrosine Chicken, Milk, Peanuts, Almonds,
Sesame seeds
, Glutamate Glutamic acid Meat, Poultry, Fish, Egg
GABA Glutamic acid Broccoli and Tomatoes
Endocannabinoids Arachidonic acid Meat and Eggs
8. Explain the role of precursors in the synthesis of neurotransmi@ers
NeurotransmiKer precursors are crucial molecules involved in neurotransmiKer synthesis. Adequate availability of
these precursors is essen&al for maintaining proper neurotransmiKer levels and ensuring effec&ve neuronal
communica&on. Importantly, you can obtain these precursors through dietary intake, and they have the capability to
cross the BBB. It's essen&al to note that consuming neurotransmiKers directly has no impact, as neurotransmi@ers
themselves cannot penetrate the BBB.
9. Name the func<on of the hippocampus
The hippocampus plays a cri&cal role in the forma&on of new memories, par&cularly declara&ve memories, which
include facts and events. It integrates sensory informa&on and contextual details to create coherent memories.
10. Name the grey ma@er structures present in the basal ganglia (mo<va<on of movement) and striatum
• Caudate Nucleus: The caudate nucleus is a C-shaped structure located in the
medial aspect of the striatum. It plays a crucial role in motor control, reward
processing, and cogni&ve func&ons.
• Globus Pallidus: The globus pallidus is divided into two segments: the
external segment (GPe) and the internal segment (GPi). The globus pallidus
is involved in the regula&on of voluntary movement and is a major output
nucleus of the basal ganglia.
• Putamen: The putamen is a more lateral and anterior component of the
striatum, adjacent to the caudate nucleus. It is involved in motor
coordina&on and motor learning and forms the outer part of the len&form
nucleus along with the globus pallidus.
• Subthalamic Nucleus
• Substan<a Nigra
Striatum = caudate nucleus + globus pallidus + putamen
, Lecture 2.1. Cogni<ve Ageing, and the Impact of Lifestyle on Ageing
1. Difference between normal and pathological ageing
With the natural process of aging, various changes occur within the brain. These include the shrinkage of neurons, a
reduc<on in synap<c connec<ons, cor<cal thinning, degrada<on of myelin—a protec&ve sheath around nerve
fibers—shortening of axonal lengths, diminished connec<vity between brain regions, and increased inflamma<on.
Addi&onally, there's an enlargement of the brain's ventricles and the accumula<on of toxic proteins and compounds.
Importantly, while these changes are inherent to the aging process, they occur at an accelerated rate (higher
progression speed) in pathological aging compared to the more gradual progression seen in typical aging.
2.1 Structural and func<onal brain changes in white ma@er (WM) associated with (cogni<ve) ageing
• Loss of myelin leads to a decreased fiber connec<ons and axonal length.
2.2 Structural and func<onal brain changes in grey ma@er (GM) associated with (cogni<ve) ageing
• Cor<cal thinning leads to an increased neuron shrinkage, reduc<on in dendri<c spines and a decline in the
number of synapses.
• Brain structure atrophy signifies a loss in neurons, stemming from a decrease in both their size and
interconnec&vity.
• The combined effects of cor&cal thinning and brain structure atrophy culminate in an overall reduc<on in brain
volume.
3. Proper<es and importance of specific regions of interest (ROIs) within the context of cogni<ve ageing (GM)
Certain brain regions exhibit more rapid deteriora&on or shrinkage compared to others, with specific diseases o_en
targe&ng par&cular areas. Could the structural characteris&cs of these regions play a role? Conduc&ng a region-specific
analysis (ROI) can shed light on whether certain areas are more vulnerable to specific factors (below) than others,
highligh&ng dis&nc&ons between them.
• This variability might be aKributed to localized inflamma<on, also known as neuroinflamma&on.
• Other poten&al <ssue-stressors within the brain might also be influencing this phenomenon.
• Certain longitudinal processes, such as iron accumula<on (predominantly in the deep grey maKer), could be
at play.
o Elevated iron levels in specific brain regions can induce oxida<ve stress on adjacent &ssues.
§ Higher concentra&ons of iron in these areas might intensify local stress, poten&ally leading to
increased shrinkage.
* Brain perfusion and inflamma&on might play a fundamental role in cogni&ve ageing!
* Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are regions which are affected by cogni&ve ageing
• Last in, first out principle
o Complex brain structures which supports higher-order cogni&ve func&ons
o Complex developmental trajectories
§ = last in
o More vulnerable to nega&ve effects of ageing
§ = first out
4. Poten<al of lifestyle interven<ons on ba@ling cogni<ve ageing
Outcome measure Lifestyle domain(s)
↑ Perfusion and Cerebral Blood Flow (CBF) Exercise
↑ Brain connec&vity Exercise, and Cogni&ve Training (+Social)
↑ Cogni&ve func&oning Diet, Exercise, and Cogni&ve training
↓ (Brain) inflamma&on Exercise and mindfulness
Modifiable protec&ve factors, such as educa<on, physical ac<vity, cogni<ve s<mula<on, and social engagement, have
been shown to be effec&ve in mi&ga&ng cogni&ve aging and reducing the risk of demen&a. These factors not only
promote brain health but also contribute to overall well-being and quality of life. On the other hand, several risk factors
and pathological mechanisms, including hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia, unhealthy diet, alcohol misuse,
1. Name 6 cerebral arteries
Star&ng from the spine, two main roads, known as the vertebral arteries
merge into a bigger one, the basilar artery. This artery divides into three
arteries in the Circle of Willis: the posterior cerebral artery, the middle
cerebral artery, and the anterior cerebral artery. To keep everything
connected, there are smaller (communica&ng) arteries: the posterior
communica<ng artery and the anterior communica<ng artery.
2. Name 2 cerebral veins
• Superior sagi@al sinus: located along the midline of the brain’s upper
surface
• Transverse sinus: located laterally on either side of the brain
• Inferior cerebral veins: located within the hemispheres of the brain
3. Name the structures forming the blood-brain
The BBB is composed of endothelial cells (ECs), pericytes (PCs), capillary basement membrane, and astrocyte end-
feet.
4. Explain the transport of glucose over the BBB and into astrocytes and neurons
Glucose is transported across the BBB into the brain primarily via GLUT-1 transporters which are posi&oned in the
endothelial cells of the BBB. Once inside the brain, glucose is taken up by astrocytes (via GLUT-1) and neurons (via
GLUT-3), where it is metabolized to produce energy and support various cellular func&ons.
5. Name 2 processes glucose regulates in the brain
• Energy Metabolism: Glucose is the primary energy substrate for the brain. Neurons and astrocytes u&lize
glucose to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through cellular respira&on. This process provides the
necessary energy for maintaining neuronal func&on, synap&c transmission, ac&on poten&al genera&on, and
other essen&al cellular ac&vi&es.
• Neurotransmi@er Synthesis and Release: Glucose availability influences the synthesis and release of
neurotransmiKers in the brain. NeurotransmiKers are chemical messengers that transmit signals between
neurons. Glucose serves as a precursor for the synthesis of certain neurotransmiKers, such as glutamate and
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Proper neurotransmiKer synthesis and release are crucial for regula&ng mood,
behavior, cogni&on, and various physiological processes.
The level of glucose is sensed and regulated by the hypothalamus and the vagus nervus!
6. Explain the reac<on of microglia and astrocytes in neuroinflamma<on
Microglia are the resident immune cells of the CNS and act as the first line of defense against pathogens and injury. In
response to neuroinflammatory s&muli, microglia can become ac<vated, undergoing morphological and func&onal
changes (shrink and thick). Besides that, microglia play a crucial role in phagocytosing cellular debris, pathogens, and
aggregated proteins, contribu&ng to the clearance of poten&ally harmful substances from the CNS. However, in
response to neuroinflammatory s&muli, astrocytes can also undergo a process called reac<ve gliosis, characterized by
hypertrophy (increase in the number, thickness, and length).
7. Name at least two neurotransmi@ers, their precursors and via which food you can obtain it
Neurotransmi@er Precursor Food
Serotonin Trypthophan Egg white and Soybeans
Dopamine Tyrosine (L-DOPA) Chicken, Milk, Peanuts, Almonds,
Sesame seeds
Noradrenaline Tyrosine Chicken, Milk, Peanuts, Almonds,
Sesame seeds
, Glutamate Glutamic acid Meat, Poultry, Fish, Egg
GABA Glutamic acid Broccoli and Tomatoes
Endocannabinoids Arachidonic acid Meat and Eggs
8. Explain the role of precursors in the synthesis of neurotransmi@ers
NeurotransmiKer precursors are crucial molecules involved in neurotransmiKer synthesis. Adequate availability of
these precursors is essen&al for maintaining proper neurotransmiKer levels and ensuring effec&ve neuronal
communica&on. Importantly, you can obtain these precursors through dietary intake, and they have the capability to
cross the BBB. It's essen&al to note that consuming neurotransmiKers directly has no impact, as neurotransmi@ers
themselves cannot penetrate the BBB.
9. Name the func<on of the hippocampus
The hippocampus plays a cri&cal role in the forma&on of new memories, par&cularly declara&ve memories, which
include facts and events. It integrates sensory informa&on and contextual details to create coherent memories.
10. Name the grey ma@er structures present in the basal ganglia (mo<va<on of movement) and striatum
• Caudate Nucleus: The caudate nucleus is a C-shaped structure located in the
medial aspect of the striatum. It plays a crucial role in motor control, reward
processing, and cogni&ve func&ons.
• Globus Pallidus: The globus pallidus is divided into two segments: the
external segment (GPe) and the internal segment (GPi). The globus pallidus
is involved in the regula&on of voluntary movement and is a major output
nucleus of the basal ganglia.
• Putamen: The putamen is a more lateral and anterior component of the
striatum, adjacent to the caudate nucleus. It is involved in motor
coordina&on and motor learning and forms the outer part of the len&form
nucleus along with the globus pallidus.
• Subthalamic Nucleus
• Substan<a Nigra
Striatum = caudate nucleus + globus pallidus + putamen
, Lecture 2.1. Cogni<ve Ageing, and the Impact of Lifestyle on Ageing
1. Difference between normal and pathological ageing
With the natural process of aging, various changes occur within the brain. These include the shrinkage of neurons, a
reduc<on in synap<c connec<ons, cor<cal thinning, degrada<on of myelin—a protec&ve sheath around nerve
fibers—shortening of axonal lengths, diminished connec<vity between brain regions, and increased inflamma<on.
Addi&onally, there's an enlargement of the brain's ventricles and the accumula<on of toxic proteins and compounds.
Importantly, while these changes are inherent to the aging process, they occur at an accelerated rate (higher
progression speed) in pathological aging compared to the more gradual progression seen in typical aging.
2.1 Structural and func<onal brain changes in white ma@er (WM) associated with (cogni<ve) ageing
• Loss of myelin leads to a decreased fiber connec<ons and axonal length.
2.2 Structural and func<onal brain changes in grey ma@er (GM) associated with (cogni<ve) ageing
• Cor<cal thinning leads to an increased neuron shrinkage, reduc<on in dendri<c spines and a decline in the
number of synapses.
• Brain structure atrophy signifies a loss in neurons, stemming from a decrease in both their size and
interconnec&vity.
• The combined effects of cor&cal thinning and brain structure atrophy culminate in an overall reduc<on in brain
volume.
3. Proper<es and importance of specific regions of interest (ROIs) within the context of cogni<ve ageing (GM)
Certain brain regions exhibit more rapid deteriora&on or shrinkage compared to others, with specific diseases o_en
targe&ng par&cular areas. Could the structural characteris&cs of these regions play a role? Conduc&ng a region-specific
analysis (ROI) can shed light on whether certain areas are more vulnerable to specific factors (below) than others,
highligh&ng dis&nc&ons between them.
• This variability might be aKributed to localized inflamma<on, also known as neuroinflamma&on.
• Other poten&al <ssue-stressors within the brain might also be influencing this phenomenon.
• Certain longitudinal processes, such as iron accumula<on (predominantly in the deep grey maKer), could be
at play.
o Elevated iron levels in specific brain regions can induce oxida<ve stress on adjacent &ssues.
§ Higher concentra&ons of iron in these areas might intensify local stress, poten&ally leading to
increased shrinkage.
* Brain perfusion and inflamma&on might play a fundamental role in cogni&ve ageing!
* Hippocampus and prefrontal cortex are regions which are affected by cogni&ve ageing
• Last in, first out principle
o Complex brain structures which supports higher-order cogni&ve func&ons
o Complex developmental trajectories
§ = last in
o More vulnerable to nega&ve effects of ageing
§ = first out
4. Poten<al of lifestyle interven<ons on ba@ling cogni<ve ageing
Outcome measure Lifestyle domain(s)
↑ Perfusion and Cerebral Blood Flow (CBF) Exercise
↑ Brain connec&vity Exercise, and Cogni&ve Training (+Social)
↑ Cogni&ve func&oning Diet, Exercise, and Cogni&ve training
↓ (Brain) inflamma&on Exercise and mindfulness
Modifiable protec&ve factors, such as educa<on, physical ac<vity, cogni<ve s<mula<on, and social engagement, have
been shown to be effec&ve in mi&ga&ng cogni&ve aging and reducing the risk of demen&a. These factors not only
promote brain health but also contribute to overall well-being and quality of life. On the other hand, several risk factors
and pathological mechanisms, including hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia, unhealthy diet, alcohol misuse,
