Summary Business Research Methods
Chapter 1 – Foundations of research methods
Research = A type of systematic investigation that is empirical in nature and is designed to
contribute to public knowledge.
Research enterprise = The macro-level effort to accumulate knowledge across multiple
empirical systematic public research projects.
Translational research = The systematic effort to move research from initial discovery to
practice and ultimately to impacts on our lives.
Research-practice continuum = The process of moving from an initial research idea or
discovery to practice, and the potential for the idea to influence our lives or world.
Basic research = Research that is designed to generate discoveries and to understand how
the discoveries work.
Applied research = Research where a discovery is tested under increasingly controlled
conditions in real-world contexts.
Implementation and dissemination (verspreiding) research = Research that assesses how
well an innovation or discovery can be distributed in and carried out in a broad range of
contexts that extend beyond the original controlled studies.
Impact research = Research that assesses the broader effects of a discovery or innovation
on society.
Policy research = Research that is designed to investigate existing policies or develop and
test new ones.
Research synthesis = A systematic study of multiple prior research projects that address
the same research question or topic and that summarizes the results in a manner that can be
used by practitioners.
Two types of research synthesis:
1. Meta-analysis = A type of research analysis that uses statistical methods to combine
the results of similar studies quantitatively in order to allow general conclusions to be
made. (quantitative synthesis)
, 2. Systematic review = A type of research synthesis that focuses on a specific question
or issue and uses preplanned methods to identify, select, assess, and summarize the
findings of multiple research studies. (judgemental, expert-driven synthesis)
Guideline = A systematic process that leads to a specific set of research-based
recommendations for practice that usually includes some estimates of how strong the
evidence is for each recommendation.
Evidence-based practice (EBP) = A movement designed to encourage or require
practitioners to employ practices that are based on research evidence as reflected in
research syntheses or practice guidelines.
Evolutionary epistemology = The branch of philosophy that holds that ideas evolve through
the process of natural selection.
Requests for proposals (RFPs) = A document issued by a government agency or other
organization that, typically, describes the problem that needs addressing, the contexts in
which it operates, the approach the agency would like you to take to investigate the problem,
and the amount the agency would be willing to pay for such research.
Literature review = A systematic compilation and written summary of all of the literature
published in scientific journals that is related to a research topic of interest. A literature review
is typically included in the introduction section of a research write-up.
Peer review = A system for reviewing potential research publications where authors submit
potential articles to a journal editor who solicits several reviewers who agree to give a critical
review of the paper. The paper is sent to these reviewers with no identification of the author
so that there will be no personal bias. Based on the reviewers’ recommendations, the editor
can accept the article, reject it, or recommend that the author revise and resubmit it.
Theoretical = Pertaining to theory. Social research is theoretical, meaning that much of it is
concerned with developing, exploring, or testing the theories or ideas that social researchers
have about how the world operates.
Empirical = Based on direct observations and measurements of reality.
Probabilistic = Based on probabilities.
Causal = Pertaining to a cause-effect relationship, hypothesis, or relationship. Something is
causal if it leads to an outcome or makes an outcome happen.
Causal relationship = A cause-effect relationship. For example, when you evaluate whether
your treatment or program causes an outcome to occur, you are examining a causal
relationship.
Three basic forms of research projects:
1. Descriptive studies: A study that documents what is going on or what exists.
2. Relational studies: A study that investigates the connection between two or more
variables.
3. Causal studies: A study that investigates a causal relationship between two
variables.
Cross-sectional study = A study that takes place at a single point in time.
Longitudinal = A study that takes place over time.
,There are two types of longitudinal design:
1. Repeated measures = Two or more waves of measurement over time.
2. Time series = Many waves of measurement over time.
Relationship = An association between two variables such that, in general, the level on one
variable is related to the level on the other. Technically, the term ‘correlational relationship’ is
redundant (onnodig): a correlation by definition always refers to a relationship. However the
term correlational relationship is used to distinguish it from the specific type of association
called causal relationship.
Third variable or missing variable problem = An unobserved variable that accounts for a
correlation between two variables.
Positive relationship = A relationship between variables in which high values for one
variable are associated with high values on another variable, and low values associated with
low values on the other variable.
Negative relationship = A relationship between variables in which high values for one
variable are associated with low values on another variable.
Hypothesis = A specific statement of prediction.
Alternative hypothesis = A specific statement of prediction that usually states what you
expect will happen in your study.
Null hypothesis = The hypothesis that describes the possible outcomes other than the
alternative hypothesis. Usually, the null hypothesis predicts there will be no effect of a
program or treatment you are studying.
Normally the hypothesis that you predict is the alternative hypothesis and the hypothesis that
won’t is the null hypothesis, however if you predict that there is no effect between the
variables, you predict the null hypothesis and the other is the alternative hypothesis.
One-tailed hypothesis = A hypothesis that specifies a direction; for example, when your
hypothesis predicts that your program will increase the outcome.
, Two-tailed hypothesis = A hypothesis that does not specify a direction. For example, if your
hypothesis is that your program or intervention will have an effect on an outcome, but you are
unwilling to specify whether that effect will be positive or negative, you are using a two-tailed
hypothesis.
The one-tailed hypothesis predicts that there is
less change or no change, so it predicts a
direction (less change).
The two-tailed hypothesis predicts that there is
change or no change, but it doesn’t predict what
kind of change (more or less), so there isn’t a
direction.
Hypothetico-deductive model = A model in which two mutually exclusive hypotheses that
together exhaust all possible outcomes are testes, such that if one hypothesis is accepted,
the second must therefore be rejected.
Variable = Any entity that can take on different values. For instance, age can be considered
a variable because age can take on different values for different people at different times.
Quantitative = The numerical representation of some object. A quantitative variable is any
variable that is measured using numbers.
Attribute = A specific value of a variable. For instance, the variable sex or gender has two
attributes: male and female.
Independent variable = The variable that you manipulate. For instance, a programme or
treatment is typically an independent variable.
Dependent variable = The variable affected by the independent variable; for example, the
outcome.
The independent variable is what you do, the dependent variable is what it affects.
Exhaustive = The property of a variable that occurs when you include all possible
answerable responses.
Mutually exclusive = The property of a variable that ensures that the respondent is not able
to assign two attributes simultaneously. For example, gender is a variable with mutually
Chapter 1 – Foundations of research methods
Research = A type of systematic investigation that is empirical in nature and is designed to
contribute to public knowledge.
Research enterprise = The macro-level effort to accumulate knowledge across multiple
empirical systematic public research projects.
Translational research = The systematic effort to move research from initial discovery to
practice and ultimately to impacts on our lives.
Research-practice continuum = The process of moving from an initial research idea or
discovery to practice, and the potential for the idea to influence our lives or world.
Basic research = Research that is designed to generate discoveries and to understand how
the discoveries work.
Applied research = Research where a discovery is tested under increasingly controlled
conditions in real-world contexts.
Implementation and dissemination (verspreiding) research = Research that assesses how
well an innovation or discovery can be distributed in and carried out in a broad range of
contexts that extend beyond the original controlled studies.
Impact research = Research that assesses the broader effects of a discovery or innovation
on society.
Policy research = Research that is designed to investigate existing policies or develop and
test new ones.
Research synthesis = A systematic study of multiple prior research projects that address
the same research question or topic and that summarizes the results in a manner that can be
used by practitioners.
Two types of research synthesis:
1. Meta-analysis = A type of research analysis that uses statistical methods to combine
the results of similar studies quantitatively in order to allow general conclusions to be
made. (quantitative synthesis)
, 2. Systematic review = A type of research synthesis that focuses on a specific question
or issue and uses preplanned methods to identify, select, assess, and summarize the
findings of multiple research studies. (judgemental, expert-driven synthesis)
Guideline = A systematic process that leads to a specific set of research-based
recommendations for practice that usually includes some estimates of how strong the
evidence is for each recommendation.
Evidence-based practice (EBP) = A movement designed to encourage or require
practitioners to employ practices that are based on research evidence as reflected in
research syntheses or practice guidelines.
Evolutionary epistemology = The branch of philosophy that holds that ideas evolve through
the process of natural selection.
Requests for proposals (RFPs) = A document issued by a government agency or other
organization that, typically, describes the problem that needs addressing, the contexts in
which it operates, the approach the agency would like you to take to investigate the problem,
and the amount the agency would be willing to pay for such research.
Literature review = A systematic compilation and written summary of all of the literature
published in scientific journals that is related to a research topic of interest. A literature review
is typically included in the introduction section of a research write-up.
Peer review = A system for reviewing potential research publications where authors submit
potential articles to a journal editor who solicits several reviewers who agree to give a critical
review of the paper. The paper is sent to these reviewers with no identification of the author
so that there will be no personal bias. Based on the reviewers’ recommendations, the editor
can accept the article, reject it, or recommend that the author revise and resubmit it.
Theoretical = Pertaining to theory. Social research is theoretical, meaning that much of it is
concerned with developing, exploring, or testing the theories or ideas that social researchers
have about how the world operates.
Empirical = Based on direct observations and measurements of reality.
Probabilistic = Based on probabilities.
Causal = Pertaining to a cause-effect relationship, hypothesis, or relationship. Something is
causal if it leads to an outcome or makes an outcome happen.
Causal relationship = A cause-effect relationship. For example, when you evaluate whether
your treatment or program causes an outcome to occur, you are examining a causal
relationship.
Three basic forms of research projects:
1. Descriptive studies: A study that documents what is going on or what exists.
2. Relational studies: A study that investigates the connection between two or more
variables.
3. Causal studies: A study that investigates a causal relationship between two
variables.
Cross-sectional study = A study that takes place at a single point in time.
Longitudinal = A study that takes place over time.
,There are two types of longitudinal design:
1. Repeated measures = Two or more waves of measurement over time.
2. Time series = Many waves of measurement over time.
Relationship = An association between two variables such that, in general, the level on one
variable is related to the level on the other. Technically, the term ‘correlational relationship’ is
redundant (onnodig): a correlation by definition always refers to a relationship. However the
term correlational relationship is used to distinguish it from the specific type of association
called causal relationship.
Third variable or missing variable problem = An unobserved variable that accounts for a
correlation between two variables.
Positive relationship = A relationship between variables in which high values for one
variable are associated with high values on another variable, and low values associated with
low values on the other variable.
Negative relationship = A relationship between variables in which high values for one
variable are associated with low values on another variable.
Hypothesis = A specific statement of prediction.
Alternative hypothesis = A specific statement of prediction that usually states what you
expect will happen in your study.
Null hypothesis = The hypothesis that describes the possible outcomes other than the
alternative hypothesis. Usually, the null hypothesis predicts there will be no effect of a
program or treatment you are studying.
Normally the hypothesis that you predict is the alternative hypothesis and the hypothesis that
won’t is the null hypothesis, however if you predict that there is no effect between the
variables, you predict the null hypothesis and the other is the alternative hypothesis.
One-tailed hypothesis = A hypothesis that specifies a direction; for example, when your
hypothesis predicts that your program will increase the outcome.
, Two-tailed hypothesis = A hypothesis that does not specify a direction. For example, if your
hypothesis is that your program or intervention will have an effect on an outcome, but you are
unwilling to specify whether that effect will be positive or negative, you are using a two-tailed
hypothesis.
The one-tailed hypothesis predicts that there is
less change or no change, so it predicts a
direction (less change).
The two-tailed hypothesis predicts that there is
change or no change, but it doesn’t predict what
kind of change (more or less), so there isn’t a
direction.
Hypothetico-deductive model = A model in which two mutually exclusive hypotheses that
together exhaust all possible outcomes are testes, such that if one hypothesis is accepted,
the second must therefore be rejected.
Variable = Any entity that can take on different values. For instance, age can be considered
a variable because age can take on different values for different people at different times.
Quantitative = The numerical representation of some object. A quantitative variable is any
variable that is measured using numbers.
Attribute = A specific value of a variable. For instance, the variable sex or gender has two
attributes: male and female.
Independent variable = The variable that you manipulate. For instance, a programme or
treatment is typically an independent variable.
Dependent variable = The variable affected by the independent variable; for example, the
outcome.
The independent variable is what you do, the dependent variable is what it affects.
Exhaustive = The property of a variable that occurs when you include all possible
answerable responses.
Mutually exclusive = The property of a variable that ensures that the respondent is not able
to assign two attributes simultaneously. For example, gender is a variable with mutually
