ARM summary
Principles of good research:
1. Formulate a knowledge question
2. Collect relevant existing knowledge
3. Collect new, additional data
4. Analyse and interpret
5. Formulate the answer to the question
Principles of scientific data:
1. The basis are testable hypotheses and evidence
2. Research does not take place in a vacuum
3. Do not trust other people’s science without your own critical analysis
4. Confidence in a theory grows as more and more studies support the theory
Evidence-based management (EBMgt): the conscientious use of multiple sources of evidence in organizational
decisions. Before following evidence, investigate:
1. The logic
2. The context
3. How your context is different or the same
In essence, how generalizable is the evidence/knowledge/theory?
Three levels of theory:
1. Local theories
2. Mid-range theories
3. Grande theories
What else can inform managerial practice:
- Obsolete knowledge
- Personal experience
- Specialist skills
- Hype
- Dogma
- Mindless mimicry (copying)
Types of evidence to inform managerial practice:
- Own research and experimentation
- One-off scientific studies (by others)
- Replicated scientific studies (stronger since more people have shown the result)
- Systematic review or Meta-analysis (+calculations) of scientific studies (very strong)
Critically assess quality of evidence on:
- Strength of research design
- Quality of outlet
- Your own assessment
1
,Constructs: theoretical concepts that may or may not be observable and measurable (abstract).
Variables: theoretical concepts that are observable and measurable.
The construct can be divided in different variables so that they can measure the organizational interdependence.
Proposition: a researcher’s statement about relationship between two or more theoretical constructs.
- Can be based on empirical data
- Does not have to be measurable or testable
Hypothesis: a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
- Informed by underlying propositions
- Testable
- Show the direction of the relationship/effect between the variables
Theory: a statement of relationships between constructs observed or approximated in the empirical world. Every
theory has boundaries: assumptions about values, time and space.
Research objective explains the main purpose of conducting a research project.
Research question is the focal point of the research objective- and project.
Research method or strategy is the ‘plan of action’.
Four types of research approaches:
1. Exploratory / descriptive: output is a description of a phenomenon or a process.
2. Theory-building: outputs are theoretical propositions that explain a certain phenomenon or process.
3. Theory-testing: output is ‘proof’ and quantifications of relationships between the established variables.
4. Decision science: output is techniques, algorithms, models for optimization of process, etc.
Science is concerned with knowing the world round us. This knowledge develops using four main ingredients:
1. Theory
2. Expectations
3. Studies
4. Observations
Three main logics of scientific reasoning:
1. Inductive reasoning: given a series of observations, we derive an explanation/generalization that is
probably true.
2. Deductive reasoning: based on premises that are true, we logically come to a conclusion that it is true.
3. Abductive reasoning: based on interactions between observations and theories, we come to a likely
explanation for what we see.
Mind the language:
- Inductive: generalization is probably true
- Deductive: the conclusion is logically true
- Abductive: the explanation is likely correct
2
, Research cycle:
Critical reflection means that everything you read or do is never optimal and never perfect.
Managerial problem:
- A performance problem
- Multiple interrelated problem and a complex cause-and-effect network
- Different problems as perceived by different stakeholders
Knowledge question:
- Start collecting literature
- Refine questions until main research question and sub-questions (3 to 5)
- If theory-testing, also formulate hypotheses
- Four types of knowledge (aka research questions):
i. Descriptive (how things are)
ii. Explanatory (why things are that way)
iii. Predictive (how things will be)
iv. Prescriptive (how things should be done)
→ if you want to reach level four, you need to gather info about lower levels etc.
Review of evidence:
- Start a more systematic search for relevant literature
• Academic literature
• Professional literature
- Your results are captured in a critical literature review
Research design:
- Determine research type: exploratory, theory-building, theory-testing or decision science
- Check that research objective, research questions and research type are consistent
- Determine research strategy/method
- It will describe:
• Plans for data collection
• Plans for data analysis
• Threats to validity and how to deal with those
• Time plan / project plan
Research outcomes:
- Distinction between the results itself (results/findings) and your discussion of the results (discussion).
3
Principles of good research:
1. Formulate a knowledge question
2. Collect relevant existing knowledge
3. Collect new, additional data
4. Analyse and interpret
5. Formulate the answer to the question
Principles of scientific data:
1. The basis are testable hypotheses and evidence
2. Research does not take place in a vacuum
3. Do not trust other people’s science without your own critical analysis
4. Confidence in a theory grows as more and more studies support the theory
Evidence-based management (EBMgt): the conscientious use of multiple sources of evidence in organizational
decisions. Before following evidence, investigate:
1. The logic
2. The context
3. How your context is different or the same
In essence, how generalizable is the evidence/knowledge/theory?
Three levels of theory:
1. Local theories
2. Mid-range theories
3. Grande theories
What else can inform managerial practice:
- Obsolete knowledge
- Personal experience
- Specialist skills
- Hype
- Dogma
- Mindless mimicry (copying)
Types of evidence to inform managerial practice:
- Own research and experimentation
- One-off scientific studies (by others)
- Replicated scientific studies (stronger since more people have shown the result)
- Systematic review or Meta-analysis (+calculations) of scientific studies (very strong)
Critically assess quality of evidence on:
- Strength of research design
- Quality of outlet
- Your own assessment
1
,Constructs: theoretical concepts that may or may not be observable and measurable (abstract).
Variables: theoretical concepts that are observable and measurable.
The construct can be divided in different variables so that they can measure the organizational interdependence.
Proposition: a researcher’s statement about relationship between two or more theoretical constructs.
- Can be based on empirical data
- Does not have to be measurable or testable
Hypothesis: a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
- Informed by underlying propositions
- Testable
- Show the direction of the relationship/effect between the variables
Theory: a statement of relationships between constructs observed or approximated in the empirical world. Every
theory has boundaries: assumptions about values, time and space.
Research objective explains the main purpose of conducting a research project.
Research question is the focal point of the research objective- and project.
Research method or strategy is the ‘plan of action’.
Four types of research approaches:
1. Exploratory / descriptive: output is a description of a phenomenon or a process.
2. Theory-building: outputs are theoretical propositions that explain a certain phenomenon or process.
3. Theory-testing: output is ‘proof’ and quantifications of relationships between the established variables.
4. Decision science: output is techniques, algorithms, models for optimization of process, etc.
Science is concerned with knowing the world round us. This knowledge develops using four main ingredients:
1. Theory
2. Expectations
3. Studies
4. Observations
Three main logics of scientific reasoning:
1. Inductive reasoning: given a series of observations, we derive an explanation/generalization that is
probably true.
2. Deductive reasoning: based on premises that are true, we logically come to a conclusion that it is true.
3. Abductive reasoning: based on interactions between observations and theories, we come to a likely
explanation for what we see.
Mind the language:
- Inductive: generalization is probably true
- Deductive: the conclusion is logically true
- Abductive: the explanation is likely correct
2
, Research cycle:
Critical reflection means that everything you read or do is never optimal and never perfect.
Managerial problem:
- A performance problem
- Multiple interrelated problem and a complex cause-and-effect network
- Different problems as perceived by different stakeholders
Knowledge question:
- Start collecting literature
- Refine questions until main research question and sub-questions (3 to 5)
- If theory-testing, also formulate hypotheses
- Four types of knowledge (aka research questions):
i. Descriptive (how things are)
ii. Explanatory (why things are that way)
iii. Predictive (how things will be)
iv. Prescriptive (how things should be done)
→ if you want to reach level four, you need to gather info about lower levels etc.
Review of evidence:
- Start a more systematic search for relevant literature
• Academic literature
• Professional literature
- Your results are captured in a critical literature review
Research design:
- Determine research type: exploratory, theory-building, theory-testing or decision science
- Check that research objective, research questions and research type are consistent
- Determine research strategy/method
- It will describe:
• Plans for data collection
• Plans for data analysis
• Threats to validity and how to deal with those
• Time plan / project plan
Research outcomes:
- Distinction between the results itself (results/findings) and your discussion of the results (discussion).
3
