Exam Notes
Week 1
Literature: CH1, CH6, CH7
Chapter 1 methods of research + 10 steps of the research process
Methods of acquiring knowledge
Method of tenacity = holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have
been accepted as facts for a long time or because of superstition
Method on intuition = information is accepted as true because it feels right, it is
accepted on the basis of a hunch or gut feeling.
Method of authority = a person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the
subject. A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject
area.
Method of faith = a variant of the method authority in which people have
unquestioning trust in the authority figure, and, therefore, accept information form
the authority without doubt or challenge.
Rationalism = seeks answers by using logical reasoning, premise statements (like
arguments) describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true
Empiricism = uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
Inductive reasoning = using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis
for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations (increase)
Deductive reasoning = uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a
conclusion about specific examples (decrease)
Scientific method = a method of acquiring knowledge that uses observations to
develop a hypothesis, then uses the hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be
Exam Notes 1
, empirically tested by making additional, systematic observations. Typically, the new
observations lead to a new hypothesis, and the cycle continues.
Steps in the research process
1. Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an
unanswered question
a. Selecting a general topic
b. Reviewing literature in that area to identify relevant variables and find an
unanswered question
2. Form a hypothesis
3. Determine how you will define and measure your variables
4. Identify participants or subjects: decide how they will be selected, and plan for
their ethical treatment
5. Select a research strategy: depends on either the type of RQ or on ethics and
other constraints
6. Select a research design: making decisions about the specific methods and
procedures you will use to conduct the research study.
7. Conduct the study
8. Evaluate the data: making graphics, computing means, describing correlations,
using inferential statistics to help determine generalizability
9. Report results: done for replicability and to become part of general knowledge
other researchers can build upon
10. Refine or reformulate the research idea: if support is found for the hypothesis, it
is possible to extend your original question into new domains or to make the RQ
more precise.
a. Test the boundaries of the result: do the findings apply to other populations?
b. Refine the original RQ: a relationship exists, but now asking why this
relationship exists
Exam Notes 2
, Chapter 6 varies forms of experimental research, external validity + internal validity
Descriptive research strategy = intended to answer questions about the current state
of individual variables for a specific group of individuals. Not concerned with with the
relationships between variables but with the description of individual variables. Goal is
to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics for a specific group of individuals.
→ On average, how many hours do UvA students sleep
Correlational research strategy = observe two variables as they exist naturally for a
set of individual; measuring two variables for each individual. A relationship between
variables means that changes in one variable are consistently and predictably
accompanies by changes in another variable.
→ Sleep pattern and GPA
The experimental research strategy = intends to answer cause-and-effect questions
about the relationship between two variables. Purpose is to explain the relationship by
determining the underlying cause. Conducted with rigorous control to help ensure an
unambiguous demonstration of a cause-and-effect relationship.
Quasi-experimental research strategy = attempts to answer cause-and-effect
questions about the relationship between two variables but can never produce an
unambiguous explanation. Uses some of the rigor and control that exist in experiments;
but always contain a flaw that prevents the research from obtaining an absolute cause-
and-effect answer.
Non-experimental research strategy = intended to demonstrate a relationship
between variables, but is does not attempt to explain the relationship. Does not try to
produce cause-and-effect explanations. Do not use the rigor and control that exist in
experiments and in quasi-experimental studies, and do not produce cause-and-effect
explanations.
Table 6.3: Five research strategies organized by the data structures they use
Exam Notes 3
, Validity = the quality or state of being true; in a research study, the validity is concerned
with the truth of the research or the accuracy of the conclusions.
External validity = the extent to which we can generalize the results of a research
study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in
that study.
→ Threat: any characteristic of a study that limits the ability to generalize the results
from a research study
Exam Notes 4
Week 1
Literature: CH1, CH6, CH7
Chapter 1 methods of research + 10 steps of the research process
Methods of acquiring knowledge
Method of tenacity = holding on to ideas and beliefs simply because they have
been accepted as facts for a long time or because of superstition
Method on intuition = information is accepted as true because it feels right, it is
accepted on the basis of a hunch or gut feeling.
Method of authority = a person finds answers by seeking out an authority on the
subject. A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject
area.
Method of faith = a variant of the method authority in which people have
unquestioning trust in the authority figure, and, therefore, accept information form
the authority without doubt or challenge.
Rationalism = seeks answers by using logical reasoning, premise statements (like
arguments) describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true
Empiricism = uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
Inductive reasoning = using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis
for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations (increase)
Deductive reasoning = uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a
conclusion about specific examples (decrease)
Scientific method = a method of acquiring knowledge that uses observations to
develop a hypothesis, then uses the hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be
Exam Notes 1
, empirically tested by making additional, systematic observations. Typically, the new
observations lead to a new hypothesis, and the cycle continues.
Steps in the research process
1. Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an
unanswered question
a. Selecting a general topic
b. Reviewing literature in that area to identify relevant variables and find an
unanswered question
2. Form a hypothesis
3. Determine how you will define and measure your variables
4. Identify participants or subjects: decide how they will be selected, and plan for
their ethical treatment
5. Select a research strategy: depends on either the type of RQ or on ethics and
other constraints
6. Select a research design: making decisions about the specific methods and
procedures you will use to conduct the research study.
7. Conduct the study
8. Evaluate the data: making graphics, computing means, describing correlations,
using inferential statistics to help determine generalizability
9. Report results: done for replicability and to become part of general knowledge
other researchers can build upon
10. Refine or reformulate the research idea: if support is found for the hypothesis, it
is possible to extend your original question into new domains or to make the RQ
more precise.
a. Test the boundaries of the result: do the findings apply to other populations?
b. Refine the original RQ: a relationship exists, but now asking why this
relationship exists
Exam Notes 2
, Chapter 6 varies forms of experimental research, external validity + internal validity
Descriptive research strategy = intended to answer questions about the current state
of individual variables for a specific group of individuals. Not concerned with with the
relationships between variables but with the description of individual variables. Goal is
to obtain a snapshot of specific characteristics for a specific group of individuals.
→ On average, how many hours do UvA students sleep
Correlational research strategy = observe two variables as they exist naturally for a
set of individual; measuring two variables for each individual. A relationship between
variables means that changes in one variable are consistently and predictably
accompanies by changes in another variable.
→ Sleep pattern and GPA
The experimental research strategy = intends to answer cause-and-effect questions
about the relationship between two variables. Purpose is to explain the relationship by
determining the underlying cause. Conducted with rigorous control to help ensure an
unambiguous demonstration of a cause-and-effect relationship.
Quasi-experimental research strategy = attempts to answer cause-and-effect
questions about the relationship between two variables but can never produce an
unambiguous explanation. Uses some of the rigor and control that exist in experiments;
but always contain a flaw that prevents the research from obtaining an absolute cause-
and-effect answer.
Non-experimental research strategy = intended to demonstrate a relationship
between variables, but is does not attempt to explain the relationship. Does not try to
produce cause-and-effect explanations. Do not use the rigor and control that exist in
experiments and in quasi-experimental studies, and do not produce cause-and-effect
explanations.
Table 6.3: Five research strategies organized by the data structures they use
Exam Notes 3
, Validity = the quality or state of being true; in a research study, the validity is concerned
with the truth of the research or the accuracy of the conclusions.
External validity = the extent to which we can generalize the results of a research
study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in
that study.
→ Threat: any characteristic of a study that limits the ability to generalize the results
from a research study
Exam Notes 4
