Social Research Methods
Carolin Fret
,Inhoudsopgave
1 The nature and process of social research .............................................................................. 6
2 Social research strategies .................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Student experience ............................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Theory and research .............................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Empiricism ............................................................................................................................. 12
2.4 Deductive and inductive theory ............................................................................................ 12
2.5 Epistemological considerations ............................................................................................. 14
2.5.1 Positivist epistemology pag 28................................................................................. 14
2.5.2 Realist epistemology ..................................................................................................... 14
2.5.3 Interpretivist epistemology ........................................................................................... 15
2.5.4 Ontological considerations ............................................................................................ 16
2.5.5 Objectivist ontology....................................................................................................... 16
2.5.6 Constructionist ontology ............................................................................................... 16
2.6 Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative ................................................................... 17
2.6.1 Quantitative research .................................................................................................... 17
2.6.2 Qualitative research ...................................................................................................... 17
2.6.3 Mixed Methods research .............................................................................................. 18
2.7 Influences on the conduct of social research ........................................................................ 18
3 Chapter 3: Research designs ................................................................................................ 19
3.1 Research designs and methods ............................................................................................. 19
3.2 Criteria in social research ...................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Types of validity (4 vormen van geldigheid).......................................................................... 19
3.4 Variabelen en hun meetniveau ............................................................................................. 20
3.5 Alternative criteria in qualitative research............................................................................ 20
3.5.1 Trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba (1985) : ................................................................. 20
3.5.2 Relevance (Hammersley 1992) ...................................................................................... 20
3.6 What is naturalism?............................................................................................................... 20
3.7 Types of research design ....................................................................................................... 20
3.7.1 Experimental design elements ...................................................................................... 21
3.7.2 Cross-sectional design ................................................................................................... 22
3.7.3 Longitudinal design........................................................................................................ 23
3.7.4 Case study design .......................................................................................................... 24
3.7.5 Comparative design ....................................................................................................... 25
,4 Chapter 7: The nature of quantitative research .................................................................... 26
4.1 What is a concept? ................................................................................................................ 26
4.2 Indicators of concepts ........................................................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Why use more than one indicator................................................................................. 27
4.2.2 What does reliability mean?......................................................................................... 27
4.2.3 What does validity mean? ............................................................................................. 28
4.2.4 What does causality mean? .......................................................................................... 28
4.2.5 Generalization ............................................................................................................... 28
4.2.6 Replication ..................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 The process of quantitative research .................................................................................... 29
4.4 Criticisms of quantitative research........................................................................................ 29
4.4.1 Is it always like this? ...................................................................................................... 29
5 Chapter 8: Sampling ............................................................................................................ 31
5.1 Inleiding ................................................................................................................................. 31
5.2 Basic terms & concepts ......................................................................................................... 31
5.3 4 types of probability sample ................................................................................................ 32
5.3.1 Simple random sample .................................................................................................. 32
5.3.2 Systematic sample ......................................................................................................... 32
5.3.3 Stratified random sample .............................................................................................. 33
5.3.4 Multi-stage cluster sample ............................................................................................ 33
5.4 Qualities of a probability sample........................................................................................... 33
5.4.1 The distribution of sample means ................................................................................. 34
5.4.2 Sample size .................................................................................................................... 34
5.5 Types of non-probability sampling: ....................................................................................... 35
5.5.1 Limits to generalization ................................................................................................. 35
5.5.2 Error in survey research ................................................................................................ 35
6 Chapter 9: Structured interviewing ...................................................................................... 37
6.1 What is a structured interviewing ......................................................................................... 37
6.1.1 Common sources of error in survey research ............................................................... 37
6.2 Advantages of structured interviewing ................................................................................. 38
6.2.1 Reduces error due to interviewer variability: ............................................................... 38
6.2.2 Accuracy and ease of data processing: ......................................................................... 38
6.3 Interview contexts ................................................................................................................. 38
6.3.1 A few points about telephone interviewing .................................................................. 39
, 6.4 Conducting structured interviews ......................................................................................... 39
6.5 Problems with structured interviewing................................................................................. 41
7 Chapter 10: Self-completion questionnaires......................................................................... 42
7.1 What is a self-completion questionnaire? ............................................................................ 42
7.1.1 Self-completion questionnaires have advantages… ...................................................... 43
7.1.2 ...but many disadvantages............................................................................................. 43
7.2 TIPS ........................................................................................................................................ 44
7.2.1 Arrange fixed answers vertically ................................................................................... 44
7.2.2 Give clear instructions about how to respond .............................................................. 44
7.2.3 Keep questions and answers together .......................................................................... 44
7.2.4 Formatting a Likert scale ............................................................................................... 45
7.3 Using diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire .................................................... 45
7.3.1 A diary study to examine gender and time use ............................................................. 45
7.3.2 Guidelines for preparing a diary for quantitative research ........................................... 46
7.4 Evaluating diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire ............................................. 46
8 Chapter 11: asking questions ............................................................................................... 47
8.1 Open questions ..................................................................................................................... 47
8.2 Closed questions ................................................................................................................... 47
8.3 Types of questions ................................................................................................................. 48
8.4 Designing questions: general rules........................................................................................ 49
8.4.1 Things to avoid .............................................................................................................. 49
8.4.2 Things to make sure of .................................................................................................. 49
8.4.3 Common mistakes when designing questions .............................................................. 50
8.5 Vignette questions ................................................................................................................ 50
8.6 Piloting and pre-testing questions ........................................................................................ 50
8.7 Using existing questions ........................................................................................................ 50
9 Chapter 13: Content analysis ............................................................................................... 51
9.1 What is content analysis? ...................................................................................................... 51
9.2 Research questions................................................................................................................ 52
9.3 Selecting a sample ................................................................................................................. 52
9.3.1 Sampling media ............................................................................................................. 52
9.3.2 Sampling dates .............................................................................................................. 52
9.4 What is to be counted ........................................................................................................... 53
9.5 The coding shedule................................................................................................................ 53
, 9.5.1 Example of a coding schedule: ...................................................................................... 53
9.5.2 The coding manual ........................................................................................................ 53
9.5.3 Portions of a coding manual .......................................................................................... 53
9.6 Avoiding potential pitfalls ..................................................................................................... 54
9.7 Advantages of content analysis ............................................................................................. 54
9.8 Disadvantages of content analysis ........................................................................................ 54
10 Chapter 12: Structured observation ..................................................................................... 55
10.1 What is structured observation? ........................................................................................... 55
10.1.1 Problems with survey research ..................................................................................... 55
10.2 Types of observation research .............................................................................................. 55
10.3 The observation schedule ..................................................................................................... 56
10.4 Flanders (1970) Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) ........................................................ 56
10.5 Strategies for observing behaviour ....................................................................................... 56
10.6 Sampling in structured observation ...................................................................................... 57
10.7 Forms of sampling ................................................................................................................. 57
10.8 Issues of reliability and validity ............................................................................................. 57
10.9 What is the reactive effect? .................................................................................................. 57
10.10 Field stimulations .............................................................................................................. 58
10.10.1 A field stimulation example:...................................................................................... 58
10.11 Criticisms of structured observation ................................................................................. 59
10.11.1 On the other hand.. ................................................................................................... 59
11 Chapter 14: Secondary analysis ........................................................................................... 60
11.1 What is secondary analysis? .................................................................................................. 60
11.2 Advantages of secondary analysis ......................................................................................... 60
11.2.1 …but there is a down-side… ........................................................................................... 60
11.3 The UK Data Archive .............................................................................................................. 60
11.3.1 Examples of large data sets suitable for secondary analysis......................................... 61
11.4 Official statistics .................................................................................................................... 61
11.4.1 Disadvantages of official statistics................................................................................. 61
11.4.2 Problems with the reliability and validity of official statistics ...................................... 62
11.5 What is ‘the ecological fallacy’? ............................................................................................ 62
12 Examen:.............................................................................................................................. 63
,1 The nature and process of social research
What is social research?
• Academic research which uses the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration:
• to formulate research topics
• to interpret the findings (pag 4,5)
• This book is about the methods used to do social research.
1. Bepalen afhankelijk of onafhankelijk maar ook
2. Sociale verandering ontketenen: ingrijpen
How are research topics formulated?
• They stem from social scientists’ attitudes to prevailing social theories; (pag 5,7)
• They follow from the researcher’s existing knowledge about the current state of phenomena;
• They depend on the researcher’s orientation to theory as something to be tested in research
or to emerge from research;
• They depend on whether research is regarded as apart from the social world studied or as an
integral part of that world.
The role of ethics and politics
• Certain kinds of research – involving children or vulnerable adults, for example – require (pag6,7)
special provision with regard to ethics, limiting what can and cannot be researched.
• Research participants might need to be involved in the formulation of the research design.
• Certain research topics are more likely to be funded than others, leading to a strong
influence by sponsors on the issues actually researched.
Politiek kan meespelen in subsidiëring van onderzoek
The role of theory in research
Which comes first, theory or research? (pag 8,9)
• should we examine a problem and try to work out how it’s caused and how it might be
solved (inductive reasoning),
• or should we take a generally accepted theory of how things work and find evidence for it in
the problem we examine (deductive reasoning)?
een theorie
= een samenhangend stelsel van uitspraken waarmee empirische wetmatigheden kunnen
worden voorspeld/ verklaard.
Wat komt er eerst?
= een theorie of een onderzoek? Twee benaderingen: inductie en deductie
- Inductie: vertrekken van empirisch materiaal en gaan naar de theorie (eerst
onderzoeken, dan concluderen). vb. Je gaat mensen observeren/interviewen in de
straat. Vervolgens breng je een systematiek in de data en trek je conclusies.
- Deductie: (deducere = afleiden): vertrekken van theoretische inzichten en van hieruit
gaan naar empirisch materiaal (eerst concluderen, dan onderzoeken).
, Epistemological considerations
• What is (or should be) considered acceptable knowledge?
• Can the social world be studied ‘scientifically’?
• Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural sciences to social science research?
• (pag 6)
Epistemologie = kennisleer/wetenschapsfilosofie. Men vraagt zich hierbij af wanneer je
onder welke omstandigheden kennis tot wetenschappelijke kennis mag rekenen. Wanneer
beschouwen we iets als wetensch kennis?
Elements of the social research process
1. Literature review
2. Concepts and theories
3. Research questions = fasen vh onderzoek
4. Sampling
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Writing up the research
pag 8, 15
1. Literatuurstudie
"Literature review"; Wat werd er reeds geschreven over het onderwerp?
2. Concepten en theorieen
Concepten zijn de bouwstenen van de theorieën ('de ingrediënten van theorieën zeg maar')
vb. charisma, macht, ... Sterk verschillend naargelang discipline. Concepten helpen ons het
onderzoek te organiseren en duidelijk te maken aan het publiek waarover het gaat.
3. Onderzoeksvragen
Zeer scherp formuleren (zo kan je het tot in detail uitwerken). MAAR is bijzonder moeilijk!
Sommige auteurs zeggen dat je nood hebt aan onderzoeksvragen, maar evengoed aan
deelonderzoeksvragen. Maar belangrijker is, is dat de vraag kadert in de probleemstelling.
Het moet kaderen in een ruimere context.
Volgens Bryan: het gehele onderzoek wordt bepaald door de onderzoeksvragen. Werkelijk
alles draait rond de onderzoeksvraag.
Zie naar voorbeeldvragn in het handboek (Types of research questions).
- Predictieve vragen: willen iets voorspellen. Vb. de verkiezingsuitslag
- Verklarende vragen: je gaat op zoek naar oorzaken van een verschijnsel, en zo
verklaar je ze.
- Evaluatieve vragen: er wordt ergens een voorziening getroffen. (Cfr. Beschrijvende
vs verklarende statistiek)
- Verbeterende vragen
- Empowerment vragen
Carolin Fret
,Inhoudsopgave
1 The nature and process of social research .............................................................................. 6
2 Social research strategies .................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Student experience ............................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Theory and research .............................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Empiricism ............................................................................................................................. 12
2.4 Deductive and inductive theory ............................................................................................ 12
2.5 Epistemological considerations ............................................................................................. 14
2.5.1 Positivist epistemology pag 28................................................................................. 14
2.5.2 Realist epistemology ..................................................................................................... 14
2.5.3 Interpretivist epistemology ........................................................................................... 15
2.5.4 Ontological considerations ............................................................................................ 16
2.5.5 Objectivist ontology....................................................................................................... 16
2.5.6 Constructionist ontology ............................................................................................... 16
2.6 Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative ................................................................... 17
2.6.1 Quantitative research .................................................................................................... 17
2.6.2 Qualitative research ...................................................................................................... 17
2.6.3 Mixed Methods research .............................................................................................. 18
2.7 Influences on the conduct of social research ........................................................................ 18
3 Chapter 3: Research designs ................................................................................................ 19
3.1 Research designs and methods ............................................................................................. 19
3.2 Criteria in social research ...................................................................................................... 19
3.3 Types of validity (4 vormen van geldigheid).......................................................................... 19
3.4 Variabelen en hun meetniveau ............................................................................................. 20
3.5 Alternative criteria in qualitative research............................................................................ 20
3.5.1 Trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba (1985) : ................................................................. 20
3.5.2 Relevance (Hammersley 1992) ...................................................................................... 20
3.6 What is naturalism?............................................................................................................... 20
3.7 Types of research design ....................................................................................................... 20
3.7.1 Experimental design elements ...................................................................................... 21
3.7.2 Cross-sectional design ................................................................................................... 22
3.7.3 Longitudinal design........................................................................................................ 23
3.7.4 Case study design .......................................................................................................... 24
3.7.5 Comparative design ....................................................................................................... 25
,4 Chapter 7: The nature of quantitative research .................................................................... 26
4.1 What is a concept? ................................................................................................................ 26
4.2 Indicators of concepts ........................................................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Why use more than one indicator................................................................................. 27
4.2.2 What does reliability mean?......................................................................................... 27
4.2.3 What does validity mean? ............................................................................................. 28
4.2.4 What does causality mean? .......................................................................................... 28
4.2.5 Generalization ............................................................................................................... 28
4.2.6 Replication ..................................................................................................................... 28
4.3 The process of quantitative research .................................................................................... 29
4.4 Criticisms of quantitative research........................................................................................ 29
4.4.1 Is it always like this? ...................................................................................................... 29
5 Chapter 8: Sampling ............................................................................................................ 31
5.1 Inleiding ................................................................................................................................. 31
5.2 Basic terms & concepts ......................................................................................................... 31
5.3 4 types of probability sample ................................................................................................ 32
5.3.1 Simple random sample .................................................................................................. 32
5.3.2 Systematic sample ......................................................................................................... 32
5.3.3 Stratified random sample .............................................................................................. 33
5.3.4 Multi-stage cluster sample ............................................................................................ 33
5.4 Qualities of a probability sample........................................................................................... 33
5.4.1 The distribution of sample means ................................................................................. 34
5.4.2 Sample size .................................................................................................................... 34
5.5 Types of non-probability sampling: ....................................................................................... 35
5.5.1 Limits to generalization ................................................................................................. 35
5.5.2 Error in survey research ................................................................................................ 35
6 Chapter 9: Structured interviewing ...................................................................................... 37
6.1 What is a structured interviewing ......................................................................................... 37
6.1.1 Common sources of error in survey research ............................................................... 37
6.2 Advantages of structured interviewing ................................................................................. 38
6.2.1 Reduces error due to interviewer variability: ............................................................... 38
6.2.2 Accuracy and ease of data processing: ......................................................................... 38
6.3 Interview contexts ................................................................................................................. 38
6.3.1 A few points about telephone interviewing .................................................................. 39
, 6.4 Conducting structured interviews ......................................................................................... 39
6.5 Problems with structured interviewing................................................................................. 41
7 Chapter 10: Self-completion questionnaires......................................................................... 42
7.1 What is a self-completion questionnaire? ............................................................................ 42
7.1.1 Self-completion questionnaires have advantages… ...................................................... 43
7.1.2 ...but many disadvantages............................................................................................. 43
7.2 TIPS ........................................................................................................................................ 44
7.2.1 Arrange fixed answers vertically ................................................................................... 44
7.2.2 Give clear instructions about how to respond .............................................................. 44
7.2.3 Keep questions and answers together .......................................................................... 44
7.2.4 Formatting a Likert scale ............................................................................................... 45
7.3 Using diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire .................................................... 45
7.3.1 A diary study to examine gender and time use ............................................................. 45
7.3.2 Guidelines for preparing a diary for quantitative research ........................................... 46
7.4 Evaluating diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire ............................................. 46
8 Chapter 11: asking questions ............................................................................................... 47
8.1 Open questions ..................................................................................................................... 47
8.2 Closed questions ................................................................................................................... 47
8.3 Types of questions ................................................................................................................. 48
8.4 Designing questions: general rules........................................................................................ 49
8.4.1 Things to avoid .............................................................................................................. 49
8.4.2 Things to make sure of .................................................................................................. 49
8.4.3 Common mistakes when designing questions .............................................................. 50
8.5 Vignette questions ................................................................................................................ 50
8.6 Piloting and pre-testing questions ........................................................................................ 50
8.7 Using existing questions ........................................................................................................ 50
9 Chapter 13: Content analysis ............................................................................................... 51
9.1 What is content analysis? ...................................................................................................... 51
9.2 Research questions................................................................................................................ 52
9.3 Selecting a sample ................................................................................................................. 52
9.3.1 Sampling media ............................................................................................................. 52
9.3.2 Sampling dates .............................................................................................................. 52
9.4 What is to be counted ........................................................................................................... 53
9.5 The coding shedule................................................................................................................ 53
, 9.5.1 Example of a coding schedule: ...................................................................................... 53
9.5.2 The coding manual ........................................................................................................ 53
9.5.3 Portions of a coding manual .......................................................................................... 53
9.6 Avoiding potential pitfalls ..................................................................................................... 54
9.7 Advantages of content analysis ............................................................................................. 54
9.8 Disadvantages of content analysis ........................................................................................ 54
10 Chapter 12: Structured observation ..................................................................................... 55
10.1 What is structured observation? ........................................................................................... 55
10.1.1 Problems with survey research ..................................................................................... 55
10.2 Types of observation research .............................................................................................. 55
10.3 The observation schedule ..................................................................................................... 56
10.4 Flanders (1970) Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) ........................................................ 56
10.5 Strategies for observing behaviour ....................................................................................... 56
10.6 Sampling in structured observation ...................................................................................... 57
10.7 Forms of sampling ................................................................................................................. 57
10.8 Issues of reliability and validity ............................................................................................. 57
10.9 What is the reactive effect? .................................................................................................. 57
10.10 Field stimulations .............................................................................................................. 58
10.10.1 A field stimulation example:...................................................................................... 58
10.11 Criticisms of structured observation ................................................................................. 59
10.11.1 On the other hand.. ................................................................................................... 59
11 Chapter 14: Secondary analysis ........................................................................................... 60
11.1 What is secondary analysis? .................................................................................................. 60
11.2 Advantages of secondary analysis ......................................................................................... 60
11.2.1 …but there is a down-side… ........................................................................................... 60
11.3 The UK Data Archive .............................................................................................................. 60
11.3.1 Examples of large data sets suitable for secondary analysis......................................... 61
11.4 Official statistics .................................................................................................................... 61
11.4.1 Disadvantages of official statistics................................................................................. 61
11.4.2 Problems with the reliability and validity of official statistics ...................................... 62
11.5 What is ‘the ecological fallacy’? ............................................................................................ 62
12 Examen:.............................................................................................................................. 63
,1 The nature and process of social research
What is social research?
• Academic research which uses the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration:
• to formulate research topics
• to interpret the findings (pag 4,5)
• This book is about the methods used to do social research.
1. Bepalen afhankelijk of onafhankelijk maar ook
2. Sociale verandering ontketenen: ingrijpen
How are research topics formulated?
• They stem from social scientists’ attitudes to prevailing social theories; (pag 5,7)
• They follow from the researcher’s existing knowledge about the current state of phenomena;
• They depend on the researcher’s orientation to theory as something to be tested in research
or to emerge from research;
• They depend on whether research is regarded as apart from the social world studied or as an
integral part of that world.
The role of ethics and politics
• Certain kinds of research – involving children or vulnerable adults, for example – require (pag6,7)
special provision with regard to ethics, limiting what can and cannot be researched.
• Research participants might need to be involved in the formulation of the research design.
• Certain research topics are more likely to be funded than others, leading to a strong
influence by sponsors on the issues actually researched.
Politiek kan meespelen in subsidiëring van onderzoek
The role of theory in research
Which comes first, theory or research? (pag 8,9)
• should we examine a problem and try to work out how it’s caused and how it might be
solved (inductive reasoning),
• or should we take a generally accepted theory of how things work and find evidence for it in
the problem we examine (deductive reasoning)?
een theorie
= een samenhangend stelsel van uitspraken waarmee empirische wetmatigheden kunnen
worden voorspeld/ verklaard.
Wat komt er eerst?
= een theorie of een onderzoek? Twee benaderingen: inductie en deductie
- Inductie: vertrekken van empirisch materiaal en gaan naar de theorie (eerst
onderzoeken, dan concluderen). vb. Je gaat mensen observeren/interviewen in de
straat. Vervolgens breng je een systematiek in de data en trek je conclusies.
- Deductie: (deducere = afleiden): vertrekken van theoretische inzichten en van hieruit
gaan naar empirisch materiaal (eerst concluderen, dan onderzoeken).
, Epistemological considerations
• What is (or should be) considered acceptable knowledge?
• Can the social world be studied ‘scientifically’?
• Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural sciences to social science research?
• (pag 6)
Epistemologie = kennisleer/wetenschapsfilosofie. Men vraagt zich hierbij af wanneer je
onder welke omstandigheden kennis tot wetenschappelijke kennis mag rekenen. Wanneer
beschouwen we iets als wetensch kennis?
Elements of the social research process
1. Literature review
2. Concepts and theories
3. Research questions = fasen vh onderzoek
4. Sampling
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Writing up the research
pag 8, 15
1. Literatuurstudie
"Literature review"; Wat werd er reeds geschreven over het onderwerp?
2. Concepten en theorieen
Concepten zijn de bouwstenen van de theorieën ('de ingrediënten van theorieën zeg maar')
vb. charisma, macht, ... Sterk verschillend naargelang discipline. Concepten helpen ons het
onderzoek te organiseren en duidelijk te maken aan het publiek waarover het gaat.
3. Onderzoeksvragen
Zeer scherp formuleren (zo kan je het tot in detail uitwerken). MAAR is bijzonder moeilijk!
Sommige auteurs zeggen dat je nood hebt aan onderzoeksvragen, maar evengoed aan
deelonderzoeksvragen. Maar belangrijker is, is dat de vraag kadert in de probleemstelling.
Het moet kaderen in een ruimere context.
Volgens Bryan: het gehele onderzoek wordt bepaald door de onderzoeksvragen. Werkelijk
alles draait rond de onderzoeksvraag.
Zie naar voorbeeldvragn in het handboek (Types of research questions).
- Predictieve vragen: willen iets voorspellen. Vb. de verkiezingsuitslag
- Verklarende vragen: je gaat op zoek naar oorzaken van een verschijnsel, en zo
verklaar je ze.
- Evaluatieve vragen: er wordt ergens een voorziening getroffen. (Cfr. Beschrijvende
vs verklarende statistiek)
- Verbeterende vragen
- Empowerment vragen
