Cognitive Science – An Introduction to the Study of Mind
Hoofdstuk 1 Exploring Mental Space
A representation is something that stands for something else.
Four categories of representation:
1) A concept – an idea that represents things we have grouped together. Concepts need
not refer to concrete items.
2) Propositions – a statement or assertion typically posed in the form of a simple
sentence. It can be proved true or false. We can apply the rules of formal logic to
propositions to determine the validity of those propositions. One logical inference is
called a syllogism. A syllogism consists of a series of propositions. The first two are
premises, and the last is a conclusion.
Premise 1: All men like football
Premise 2: Charlie is a man
Conclusion: Charlie likes football
3) Rules – If x, then y. X and Y are propositions. The if part of the rule is called the
antecedent, and the then part is called the consequent.
4) Analogy – applying one’s familiarity with an old situation to a new situation.
Analogies are a useful form of representation because they allow us to generalize our
learning.
The thing(s) in the external world that a representation stands for are called referents.
The fact that a representation stands for something else means it is symbolic.
Symbols can be assembled into what are called physical symbol systems, or more simply as
formal logical systems. In a formal logical system, symbols are combined into expressions.
These expressions can then be manipulated using processes. The result of a process can be a
new expression.
“Animals that nurse their young are mammals”
“Wales nurse their young”
“Wales are mammals”
Representations are only the first key component of the traditional cognitive science view of
mental processes. Representations by themselves are of little use unless something can be
done with them.
Computation = information processing.
Any given information process can be described at several different levels. According to the
tri-level hypothesis information-processing events can be evaluated on at least three
different levels (Marr, 1982).
1) Computational level – The highest or most abstract level of analysis. At this level, one
is concerned with two tasks. The first is a clear specification of what the problem is.
The second task one encounters at the computational level concerns the purpose or
reason for the process. Why is this process here in the first place?
2) Algorithmic level – Stepping down one level of abstraction, we can next inquire about
the way in which an information process is carried out. To do this, we need an
algorithm. Algorithms are formal, meaning they are well defined. We know exactly
what occurs at each step of an algorithm and how a particular step changes the
, information being acted on. What information-processing steps are being used to
solve to problem?
3) Implementational level – The most specific and concrete type of description. What is
the information processor made of?
Hoofdstuk 2 The Philosophical approach
We concern ourselves here with two branches of philosophy.
- Methaphysics examines the nature of reality.
- Epistemology is the study of knowledge and asks questions such as, what is
knowledge?
The mind-body problem
What is the mind? On the one hand, we have the brain that is material and physical. It is
made up of substances that we can measure and understand. The mind could be thought of
in the same way, as simply a physical thing. On the other hand, there are those who argue
that the mind is something more. They say that the mind is nonphysical and consists of
something resembling a soul or spirit.
Does the mind control the body? Or does the body control the mind?
According to monism (een filosofisch standpunt, dat zegt dat er slechts een van iets is), there
is only one kind of state or substance in the universe. Philosopher Aristotle was a monist. He
characterized the difference between mind and body as the difference between form and
matter.
If we are monists, we are left with two fundamental choices. Either the universe is
mental, or it is physical. It is difficult to take the first argument, called idealism, seriously –
although it cannot be falsified. Imagine that everything you know isn’t real but is simply an
illusion of reality. The world you perceive and understand exists only “in your head”
On the flip side of our metaphysical coin is materialism. They believed that all things were
composed of atoms. Physicalists, a.k.a. materialists, are also monistic and believe that the
universe is composed of a single substance. However, they regard this substance as physical
and material rather than spiritual or ethereal. The operations of the human mind are seen
here simply as the operations of the human nervous system.
We can consider identity theory to be a form of materialism. According to identity theory,
the mind is the brain. Mental states are physical states of the brain.
In dualism, one believes that both mental and physical substances are possible.
Dualists believe both mental and physical realms are possible but differ in the way they think
these two interact.
Classical dualism = Originated with Descartes. He believed in a one-way causal link, with the
nonphysical mind controlling the physical body but not vice versa.
Hoofdstuk 1 Exploring Mental Space
A representation is something that stands for something else.
Four categories of representation:
1) A concept – an idea that represents things we have grouped together. Concepts need
not refer to concrete items.
2) Propositions – a statement or assertion typically posed in the form of a simple
sentence. It can be proved true or false. We can apply the rules of formal logic to
propositions to determine the validity of those propositions. One logical inference is
called a syllogism. A syllogism consists of a series of propositions. The first two are
premises, and the last is a conclusion.
Premise 1: All men like football
Premise 2: Charlie is a man
Conclusion: Charlie likes football
3) Rules – If x, then y. X and Y are propositions. The if part of the rule is called the
antecedent, and the then part is called the consequent.
4) Analogy – applying one’s familiarity with an old situation to a new situation.
Analogies are a useful form of representation because they allow us to generalize our
learning.
The thing(s) in the external world that a representation stands for are called referents.
The fact that a representation stands for something else means it is symbolic.
Symbols can be assembled into what are called physical symbol systems, or more simply as
formal logical systems. In a formal logical system, symbols are combined into expressions.
These expressions can then be manipulated using processes. The result of a process can be a
new expression.
“Animals that nurse their young are mammals”
“Wales nurse their young”
“Wales are mammals”
Representations are only the first key component of the traditional cognitive science view of
mental processes. Representations by themselves are of little use unless something can be
done with them.
Computation = information processing.
Any given information process can be described at several different levels. According to the
tri-level hypothesis information-processing events can be evaluated on at least three
different levels (Marr, 1982).
1) Computational level – The highest or most abstract level of analysis. At this level, one
is concerned with two tasks. The first is a clear specification of what the problem is.
The second task one encounters at the computational level concerns the purpose or
reason for the process. Why is this process here in the first place?
2) Algorithmic level – Stepping down one level of abstraction, we can next inquire about
the way in which an information process is carried out. To do this, we need an
algorithm. Algorithms are formal, meaning they are well defined. We know exactly
what occurs at each step of an algorithm and how a particular step changes the
, information being acted on. What information-processing steps are being used to
solve to problem?
3) Implementational level – The most specific and concrete type of description. What is
the information processor made of?
Hoofdstuk 2 The Philosophical approach
We concern ourselves here with two branches of philosophy.
- Methaphysics examines the nature of reality.
- Epistemology is the study of knowledge and asks questions such as, what is
knowledge?
The mind-body problem
What is the mind? On the one hand, we have the brain that is material and physical. It is
made up of substances that we can measure and understand. The mind could be thought of
in the same way, as simply a physical thing. On the other hand, there are those who argue
that the mind is something more. They say that the mind is nonphysical and consists of
something resembling a soul or spirit.
Does the mind control the body? Or does the body control the mind?
According to monism (een filosofisch standpunt, dat zegt dat er slechts een van iets is), there
is only one kind of state or substance in the universe. Philosopher Aristotle was a monist. He
characterized the difference between mind and body as the difference between form and
matter.
If we are monists, we are left with two fundamental choices. Either the universe is
mental, or it is physical. It is difficult to take the first argument, called idealism, seriously –
although it cannot be falsified. Imagine that everything you know isn’t real but is simply an
illusion of reality. The world you perceive and understand exists only “in your head”
On the flip side of our metaphysical coin is materialism. They believed that all things were
composed of atoms. Physicalists, a.k.a. materialists, are also monistic and believe that the
universe is composed of a single substance. However, they regard this substance as physical
and material rather than spiritual or ethereal. The operations of the human mind are seen
here simply as the operations of the human nervous system.
We can consider identity theory to be a form of materialism. According to identity theory,
the mind is the brain. Mental states are physical states of the brain.
In dualism, one believes that both mental and physical substances are possible.
Dualists believe both mental and physical realms are possible but differ in the way they think
these two interact.
Classical dualism = Originated with Descartes. He believed in a one-way causal link, with the
nonphysical mind controlling the physical body but not vice versa.
