Chapter 52
An individual behavior is an action carried out by muscles under control of the
nervous system.
The scientific discipline of behavioral ecology extends observations of animal
behavior by studying the evolutionary and ecological basis for behavior.
Behavioral ecology is essential to solving critically important problems ranging
from the conservation of endangered species to the control of emerging
infectious diseases.
Concept 52.1
Niko Tinbergen a pioneer in study of animal behavior.
- Proximate causation : “how” a behavior occurs or is modified.
- Ultimate causation: “why” a behavior occurs in the context of natural
selection.
Fixed action pattern a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple
stimulus. The trigger for the behavior is an external cue called a sign stimulus
(such as a red object that prompts the male stickleback’s aggressive behavior)
Migration a regular, long-distance change in location. Some migrating animals
track their position relative to the sun, even though the sun’s position relative to
Earth changes throughout the day. Animals can adjust for these changes by
means of a circadian clock, an internal mechanism that maintains a 24-hour
activity rhythm or cycle.
Circannual rhythms, behavioral rhythms linked to the yearly cycle of seasons.
A stimulus transmitted from one organism to another is called a signal. The
transmission and reception of signals between animals constitute
communication, which often has a role in proximate causation of behavior. The
form of communication that evolves is closely related to an animal’s lifestyle and
environment.
Pheromones animals that communicate through odors or testes emit
chemical substances.
Concept 52.2
Innate behavior behavior like pheromones signaling, a court-ship stimulus-
response chain etc.
Cross-fostering study the young of one species are placed in the care of
adults from another species. - The extent to which the offspring’s behavior
changes in such a situation provides a measure of how social and
physical environment influences behavior.
* one of the most important findings of the cross-fostering experiments with mice
was that the influence of experience on behavior can be passed on to progeny:
When the cross-fostered California mice became parents, they spent less time
retrieving offspring who wandered off than did California mice raised by their own
species*
For humans, the influence of genetics and environment on behavior can be
explored by a twin study researchers compare the behavior of identical twins
raised apart with the behavior of those raised in the same household.
, Learning the modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences.
- Depends on the nervous system
- Learning itself changes in neural connectivity.
Imprinting the establishment of a long-lasting behavioral response to a
particular individual or object. Imprinting can take place only during a specific
time period in development the sensitive period. (gebeurd bij dieren die hun
ouders willen herkennen en onthouden, en vice versa.) Konrad Lorenz.
Spatial learning the establishment of a memory that reflects the
environment’s spatial structure. Tinbergen.
In some animals, spatial learning involves formulating a cognitive map a
representation in an animal’s nervous system of the spatial relationships between
objects in its surroundings.
Associative learning the ability to associate one environmental feature (such
as color) with another (such as a foul taste).
- In classical conditioning, an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a
particular outcome. Ivan Pavlov
- In operant conditioning, also called trial-and-error learning, an animal first
learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment and then
tends to repeat or avoid that behavior. B.F. Skinner
Cognition the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning,
recollection, and judgments.
The information-processing ability of a nervous system can also be revealed in
problem solving, the cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from
one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles.
Social learning many animals learn to solve problems by observing the
behavior of other individuals.
Social learning forms the roots of culture, which can be defined as a system of
information transfer through social learning or teaching that influences the
behavioral of individuals in a population. Cultural transfer of information can alter
behavioral phenotypes and thereby influence the fitness of individuals.
Concept 52.3
Tinbergen’s third question: How behavior enhances survival and reproduction in a
population.
Foraging food-obtaining behavior, includes not only eating but also any
activities an animal uses to search for, recognize, and capture food items.
To study the ultimate causation of foraging strategies, biologists sometimes apply
a type of cost-benefit analysis used in economics. This idea propose that foraging
behavior is a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the costs of
obtaining food. These costs might include energy expenditure of foraging as well
as the risk of being eaten while foraging.
According to this optimal foraging model, natural selection should favor a
foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the
benefits.
One of the most significant potential costs to a forager is risk of predation.
An individual behavior is an action carried out by muscles under control of the
nervous system.
The scientific discipline of behavioral ecology extends observations of animal
behavior by studying the evolutionary and ecological basis for behavior.
Behavioral ecology is essential to solving critically important problems ranging
from the conservation of endangered species to the control of emerging
infectious diseases.
Concept 52.1
Niko Tinbergen a pioneer in study of animal behavior.
- Proximate causation : “how” a behavior occurs or is modified.
- Ultimate causation: “why” a behavior occurs in the context of natural
selection.
Fixed action pattern a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple
stimulus. The trigger for the behavior is an external cue called a sign stimulus
(such as a red object that prompts the male stickleback’s aggressive behavior)
Migration a regular, long-distance change in location. Some migrating animals
track their position relative to the sun, even though the sun’s position relative to
Earth changes throughout the day. Animals can adjust for these changes by
means of a circadian clock, an internal mechanism that maintains a 24-hour
activity rhythm or cycle.
Circannual rhythms, behavioral rhythms linked to the yearly cycle of seasons.
A stimulus transmitted from one organism to another is called a signal. The
transmission and reception of signals between animals constitute
communication, which often has a role in proximate causation of behavior. The
form of communication that evolves is closely related to an animal’s lifestyle and
environment.
Pheromones animals that communicate through odors or testes emit
chemical substances.
Concept 52.2
Innate behavior behavior like pheromones signaling, a court-ship stimulus-
response chain etc.
Cross-fostering study the young of one species are placed in the care of
adults from another species. - The extent to which the offspring’s behavior
changes in such a situation provides a measure of how social and
physical environment influences behavior.
* one of the most important findings of the cross-fostering experiments with mice
was that the influence of experience on behavior can be passed on to progeny:
When the cross-fostered California mice became parents, they spent less time
retrieving offspring who wandered off than did California mice raised by their own
species*
For humans, the influence of genetics and environment on behavior can be
explored by a twin study researchers compare the behavior of identical twins
raised apart with the behavior of those raised in the same household.
, Learning the modification of behavior as a result of specific experiences.
- Depends on the nervous system
- Learning itself changes in neural connectivity.
Imprinting the establishment of a long-lasting behavioral response to a
particular individual or object. Imprinting can take place only during a specific
time period in development the sensitive period. (gebeurd bij dieren die hun
ouders willen herkennen en onthouden, en vice versa.) Konrad Lorenz.
Spatial learning the establishment of a memory that reflects the
environment’s spatial structure. Tinbergen.
In some animals, spatial learning involves formulating a cognitive map a
representation in an animal’s nervous system of the spatial relationships between
objects in its surroundings.
Associative learning the ability to associate one environmental feature (such
as color) with another (such as a foul taste).
- In classical conditioning, an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a
particular outcome. Ivan Pavlov
- In operant conditioning, also called trial-and-error learning, an animal first
learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment and then
tends to repeat or avoid that behavior. B.F. Skinner
Cognition the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning,
recollection, and judgments.
The information-processing ability of a nervous system can also be revealed in
problem solving, the cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from
one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles.
Social learning many animals learn to solve problems by observing the
behavior of other individuals.
Social learning forms the roots of culture, which can be defined as a system of
information transfer through social learning or teaching that influences the
behavioral of individuals in a population. Cultural transfer of information can alter
behavioral phenotypes and thereby influence the fitness of individuals.
Concept 52.3
Tinbergen’s third question: How behavior enhances survival and reproduction in a
population.
Foraging food-obtaining behavior, includes not only eating but also any
activities an animal uses to search for, recognize, and capture food items.
To study the ultimate causation of foraging strategies, biologists sometimes apply
a type of cost-benefit analysis used in economics. This idea propose that foraging
behavior is a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the costs of
obtaining food. These costs might include energy expenditure of foraging as well
as the risk of being eaten while foraging.
According to this optimal foraging model, natural selection should favor a
foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging and maximizes the
benefits.
One of the most significant potential costs to a forager is risk of predation.
