PATHOLOGIE SAMENVATTING
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY
People tend to define things as crazy when:
- They deviate from the norm
- They are irrational
- Unclear about intentions
- When behavior seems maladaptive or harmful to others
Psychopathology The study of deviations from normal everyday psychological or behavioral
functioning
Clinical psychology The branch of psychology responsible for understanding and treating
psychopathology
DEFININE PATHOLOGY
Demon possession Earlier explanations for psychopathology lie in the fact that everyone thought
someone was possessed by a demon if they deviated from the norm. This derived from the first symptom of
psychopathology. A change in personality traits.
Demonology Many ancient civilizations such as those in Egypt, China, Greece etc. believed that
exhibit symptoms of psychopathology were possessed by bad spirits.
MEDICAL MODEL
General paresis A brain disease occurring as a late consequence of syphilis, characterized by
dementia, progressive muscular weakness and paralysis. This disease formed the base of the belief that mental
illness could also have a medical or biologic base
Somatogenic behavior The hypotheses that the cause of explanations of psychological problems can be
found in physical or biological impairments. This was an important step in the development of the medical
model because it introduced scientific thinking in our attempts to understand psychopathology.
Psychiatry A scientific method of treatment that is based on medicine, the primary approach
of which is to identify the biological causes of psychopathology and treat them with medication or surgery. This
derived from the medical model.
Implications of the medical model:
- It implies that medical or biological causes underlie psychopathology
- It implies to reduce the complex emotional features of psychopathology to simple biological
- Pathology is explained by ‘’something that isn’t working properly’
FROM ASYLUMS TO COMMUNITY CARE
Asylums In previous centuries asylums were hospices converted for the confinement of individuals
with mental health problems
,In earlier times people in asylums were treated as animals. During the 19 th century this changed. Philippe
Pennel decided to be a pioneer in the moral treatment
Moral treatment Approach to the treatment of asylum inmates, developed by the quaker movement in the
UK, which abandoned contemporary medical approaches in favor of understanding, hope, moral responsibility
and occupational therapy.
Social breakdown syndrome Confrontational and challenging behavior, physical
aggressiveness and lack of interest in personal welfare and hygiene. Caused by nurses using restraint
as the only form of intervention for chronical ill patients.
Milieu therapies The first attempts to structure the hospital environment for patients, which attempted to
create a therapeutic community on the ward in order to develop productivity, independence, responsibility and
feelings of self-respect.
Token economy Another therapeutic refinement. Reward system involves participants receiving tokens
engaging in certain behaviors which later time can be exchanged for a variety of reinforcing or desired items.
Yet the use of this declined because long-term hospitalization was no longer necessary because people could
life on their own with community care.
EXPLANATORY APPROACHES TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Abnormal psychopathology This is alternative definition of psychopathology that is no longer
generally accepted due to the fact that it cause stigmatization. People are defined as not normal, while this is
not correct.
Service users group Groups of individuals who are end users of the mental health services
provided by government agencies for example
When we define pathology is important to minimize the stigmatization that comes with it. As mentioned before
pathology can be defined in many ways:
- Deviation from the statistical norm
Statistical norm The mean, average or model example of a behavior
- Deviation from social and political norms
These norms differs in all cultures and it’s important to keep in mind that cultural factors
significantly affect the way psychopathology manifest themselves.
- Maladaptive behavior and harmful dysfunction
Not all maladaptive behavior is linked to pathology and sometimes maladaptive behavior serves a
protective or adaptive function
Harmful disfunction Assumption that pathology is defined by the dysfunction of a normal
process that has the consequence of being harmful in some way.
- Distress and disability
Classifying the disorder according to clinically significant symptoms
BIOLOGICAL MODELS
Genetics
Genetics A fast growing study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
, Concordance studies Studies designed to investigate the probability with which family
members or relatives will develop a psychopathological disorder depending on how closely they are
related, or even more specific, the genetic material they have in common
Twin studies Studies in which researchers have compared the probability with which
monozygotic and diszygotic twins both develop symptoms indicative of a psychopathology in order to
assess genetic contributions to that psychopathology
Many times the offspring of twins will also be studied because they overcome the difficulties that
come with twin studies .
Diatheses stress model Model that suggests a mental health problem develop because of an interaction
between a genetic predisposition and our interactions with the environment
Heritability A measure of the degree to which symptoms can be accounted for by genetic
factors. It ranges from 0 to 1. The close to 1, the stronger the genetics play a part in the causing the symptoms
Molecular genetics Genetic approach that seeks to identify individual gene that may be involved in
transmitting psychopathological symptoms
Genetic linkage analysis A method of identifying individuals genes by comparing the inheritance
of characteristics for which gene location is known with the inheritance of psychopathological
symptoms
Neuroscience
Brain structure and functions:
- Corpus callosum A set of nerve fibers which connects the two mirror-image hemispheres of the
brain
- Cerebral cortex The outer, convoluted area of the brain
- Occitpital lobe Brain area associated with perception
- Temporal lobe Brain area involved with hearing, memory, emotion, language, illusions, taste and
smell
- Pariental lobe Brain region associated with viseo- motorical skills
- Frontal lobes One of four parts of the cerebellum that control voluntary movements, verbal
expressions, problems solving, will power and planning
- Limibic system A brain system comprising the hippocampus, mammillary body, amygdala,
hypothalamus, fornix and thalamus. It is situated beneath the cerebral cortex and it is thought to be
critically involved in emotion and learning
- Hippocampus A part of the brain which is involved in special learning
- Amygdala The region of the brain responsible for coordinating and initiating responses to
fear
Neurotransmitters Brain neurotransmitters are chemicals that help neurons to communicate with
each other and are essential components of the mechanisms that regulate efficient and effective brain
functioning
Dopamine A compound that exists in the body as neurotransmitter and as precursor of other
substances including adrenaline
Serotonin An important brain neurotransmitter where low levels are associated with
depression
, Norepinephrine A neurotransmitter where low levels are associated with depression
GABA A neurotransmitter thought to play a role in anxiety symptoms
PSYCHOLOGICAL MODELS
Psychoanalyse
Psychoanalysis An influential psychological model of psychopathology based on the theorical
work.
Id In psychanalysis the concept used to describe innate instinctual need, especially sexual
Ego A rational part of the psyche that attempts to control the impulses of the id
Superego Key concept in the psychoanalytic approach. The superego develops out of the id and ego
and represents our attempts to integrate ‘’values’’ we learn from our parents or society
Ego defense mechanism Means by which the ego attempts to control unacceptable id
impulses and reduce anxiety that id impulses may arouse
If control in these three items is out of balance people start to show signs of pathology.
Defense mechanisms In the psychoanalysis the means by which individuals attempt to control
conflict between the three items and also reduce stress and conflict from external events.
Stage of development Progressive periods of development from infancy to maturity.
The behavioral model
The learning theory The body of knowledge encompassing principles of classical and operant
conditioning. Frequently used to treat psychopathology.
The cognitive model
This is the most used model. This approach considers psychopathology to be the result of individuals acquiring
irrational beliefs, developing dysfunctional ways of thinking and processing information in a biased way
Cognitive behavior therapy An intervention in changing both thought and behavior. CBT represents an
umbrella for many different therapies that share the common aim of changing both cognitions and behavior
The humanist approach
Humanist-existentialist approach A model of psychopathology which aims to resolve psychopathological
problems through insight, personal development and self-actualization
Client-centered therapy An approach to psychopathology stressing the goodness of
human nature, assuming that if individuals are unrestricted by fears and conflicts they will develop
into well- adjusted, happy individuals. Done through: Empathy, unconditional positive regard
MENTAL HEALTH AND STIGMA
Mental health stigma Mental health stigma can be divided in to distinct types. This can significantly
affect feelings of shame and lead to poorer treatment outcomes
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY
People tend to define things as crazy when:
- They deviate from the norm
- They are irrational
- Unclear about intentions
- When behavior seems maladaptive or harmful to others
Psychopathology The study of deviations from normal everyday psychological or behavioral
functioning
Clinical psychology The branch of psychology responsible for understanding and treating
psychopathology
DEFININE PATHOLOGY
Demon possession Earlier explanations for psychopathology lie in the fact that everyone thought
someone was possessed by a demon if they deviated from the norm. This derived from the first symptom of
psychopathology. A change in personality traits.
Demonology Many ancient civilizations such as those in Egypt, China, Greece etc. believed that
exhibit symptoms of psychopathology were possessed by bad spirits.
MEDICAL MODEL
General paresis A brain disease occurring as a late consequence of syphilis, characterized by
dementia, progressive muscular weakness and paralysis. This disease formed the base of the belief that mental
illness could also have a medical or biologic base
Somatogenic behavior The hypotheses that the cause of explanations of psychological problems can be
found in physical or biological impairments. This was an important step in the development of the medical
model because it introduced scientific thinking in our attempts to understand psychopathology.
Psychiatry A scientific method of treatment that is based on medicine, the primary approach
of which is to identify the biological causes of psychopathology and treat them with medication or surgery. This
derived from the medical model.
Implications of the medical model:
- It implies that medical or biological causes underlie psychopathology
- It implies to reduce the complex emotional features of psychopathology to simple biological
- Pathology is explained by ‘’something that isn’t working properly’
FROM ASYLUMS TO COMMUNITY CARE
Asylums In previous centuries asylums were hospices converted for the confinement of individuals
with mental health problems
,In earlier times people in asylums were treated as animals. During the 19 th century this changed. Philippe
Pennel decided to be a pioneer in the moral treatment
Moral treatment Approach to the treatment of asylum inmates, developed by the quaker movement in the
UK, which abandoned contemporary medical approaches in favor of understanding, hope, moral responsibility
and occupational therapy.
Social breakdown syndrome Confrontational and challenging behavior, physical
aggressiveness and lack of interest in personal welfare and hygiene. Caused by nurses using restraint
as the only form of intervention for chronical ill patients.
Milieu therapies The first attempts to structure the hospital environment for patients, which attempted to
create a therapeutic community on the ward in order to develop productivity, independence, responsibility and
feelings of self-respect.
Token economy Another therapeutic refinement. Reward system involves participants receiving tokens
engaging in certain behaviors which later time can be exchanged for a variety of reinforcing or desired items.
Yet the use of this declined because long-term hospitalization was no longer necessary because people could
life on their own with community care.
EXPLANATORY APPROACHES TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
Abnormal psychopathology This is alternative definition of psychopathology that is no longer
generally accepted due to the fact that it cause stigmatization. People are defined as not normal, while this is
not correct.
Service users group Groups of individuals who are end users of the mental health services
provided by government agencies for example
When we define pathology is important to minimize the stigmatization that comes with it. As mentioned before
pathology can be defined in many ways:
- Deviation from the statistical norm
Statistical norm The mean, average or model example of a behavior
- Deviation from social and political norms
These norms differs in all cultures and it’s important to keep in mind that cultural factors
significantly affect the way psychopathology manifest themselves.
- Maladaptive behavior and harmful dysfunction
Not all maladaptive behavior is linked to pathology and sometimes maladaptive behavior serves a
protective or adaptive function
Harmful disfunction Assumption that pathology is defined by the dysfunction of a normal
process that has the consequence of being harmful in some way.
- Distress and disability
Classifying the disorder according to clinically significant symptoms
BIOLOGICAL MODELS
Genetics
Genetics A fast growing study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
, Concordance studies Studies designed to investigate the probability with which family
members or relatives will develop a psychopathological disorder depending on how closely they are
related, or even more specific, the genetic material they have in common
Twin studies Studies in which researchers have compared the probability with which
monozygotic and diszygotic twins both develop symptoms indicative of a psychopathology in order to
assess genetic contributions to that psychopathology
Many times the offspring of twins will also be studied because they overcome the difficulties that
come with twin studies .
Diatheses stress model Model that suggests a mental health problem develop because of an interaction
between a genetic predisposition and our interactions with the environment
Heritability A measure of the degree to which symptoms can be accounted for by genetic
factors. It ranges from 0 to 1. The close to 1, the stronger the genetics play a part in the causing the symptoms
Molecular genetics Genetic approach that seeks to identify individual gene that may be involved in
transmitting psychopathological symptoms
Genetic linkage analysis A method of identifying individuals genes by comparing the inheritance
of characteristics for which gene location is known with the inheritance of psychopathological
symptoms
Neuroscience
Brain structure and functions:
- Corpus callosum A set of nerve fibers which connects the two mirror-image hemispheres of the
brain
- Cerebral cortex The outer, convoluted area of the brain
- Occitpital lobe Brain area associated with perception
- Temporal lobe Brain area involved with hearing, memory, emotion, language, illusions, taste and
smell
- Pariental lobe Brain region associated with viseo- motorical skills
- Frontal lobes One of four parts of the cerebellum that control voluntary movements, verbal
expressions, problems solving, will power and planning
- Limibic system A brain system comprising the hippocampus, mammillary body, amygdala,
hypothalamus, fornix and thalamus. It is situated beneath the cerebral cortex and it is thought to be
critically involved in emotion and learning
- Hippocampus A part of the brain which is involved in special learning
- Amygdala The region of the brain responsible for coordinating and initiating responses to
fear
Neurotransmitters Brain neurotransmitters are chemicals that help neurons to communicate with
each other and are essential components of the mechanisms that regulate efficient and effective brain
functioning
Dopamine A compound that exists in the body as neurotransmitter and as precursor of other
substances including adrenaline
Serotonin An important brain neurotransmitter where low levels are associated with
depression
, Norepinephrine A neurotransmitter where low levels are associated with depression
GABA A neurotransmitter thought to play a role in anxiety symptoms
PSYCHOLOGICAL MODELS
Psychoanalyse
Psychoanalysis An influential psychological model of psychopathology based on the theorical
work.
Id In psychanalysis the concept used to describe innate instinctual need, especially sexual
Ego A rational part of the psyche that attempts to control the impulses of the id
Superego Key concept in the psychoanalytic approach. The superego develops out of the id and ego
and represents our attempts to integrate ‘’values’’ we learn from our parents or society
Ego defense mechanism Means by which the ego attempts to control unacceptable id
impulses and reduce anxiety that id impulses may arouse
If control in these three items is out of balance people start to show signs of pathology.
Defense mechanisms In the psychoanalysis the means by which individuals attempt to control
conflict between the three items and also reduce stress and conflict from external events.
Stage of development Progressive periods of development from infancy to maturity.
The behavioral model
The learning theory The body of knowledge encompassing principles of classical and operant
conditioning. Frequently used to treat psychopathology.
The cognitive model
This is the most used model. This approach considers psychopathology to be the result of individuals acquiring
irrational beliefs, developing dysfunctional ways of thinking and processing information in a biased way
Cognitive behavior therapy An intervention in changing both thought and behavior. CBT represents an
umbrella for many different therapies that share the common aim of changing both cognitions and behavior
The humanist approach
Humanist-existentialist approach A model of psychopathology which aims to resolve psychopathological
problems through insight, personal development and self-actualization
Client-centered therapy An approach to psychopathology stressing the goodness of
human nature, assuming that if individuals are unrestricted by fears and conflicts they will develop
into well- adjusted, happy individuals. Done through: Empathy, unconditional positive regard
MENTAL HEALTH AND STIGMA
Mental health stigma Mental health stigma can be divided in to distinct types. This can significantly
affect feelings of shame and lead to poorer treatment outcomes
