1. SEXUALITY IN PERSPECTIVE
DEFINITIONS OF SEX
Gender: being male, female, or some other gender such as trans
• Many Americans think sex = “penis-in-vagina intercourse”
o Assumption that sex is heterosexual
o What about oral-genital intercourse?
• Biologists say sex = “any behavior that increases the likelihood of gametic union [union of sperm
and egg]”
→ Emphasizes reproductive function of sex
→ Medical advances (e.g. birth control pill) separate reproduction from sex
→ Assumption that sex is heterosexual
• Kinsey said sex = “behavior that leads to orgasm”
→ Women that don’t climax during sex didn’t have sex?
Sexual behavior: behavior that produces arousal and increases the chance of orgasm
SEX AND RELIGION
Different religions have different understandings of human sexuality
→ Ancient Greek myth: original humans were double creatures with twice the normal number of limbs
and organs; double males, double females, and half-male-half-females → origin of hetero- vs
homosexuality
→ 15th-century Christian belief: “wet dreams” result from intercourse with tiny spiritual creatures
called incubi and succubi
→ Muslim belief: sexual intercourse is one of the finest pleasures of life, reflecting the teachings of the
great prophet Muhammad
SEX AND SCIENCE
Scientific study of sex began in 19th century (norms about sexuality were very rigid and oppressive)
• Sigmund Freud
o Psychoanalytica
o (See later chapters)
• Henry Havelock Ellis
o Objective and tolerant
o Believed that women, like men, are sexual creatures
o Urged society to accept sexual deviations
o Collect information on human sexuality, instead of making judgments
o Forerunner of modern sex research
• Richard von Krafft-Ebing
o Not objective, nor tolerant
o Pathological sexuality (= caused by mental illness)
o Coined the concepts sadism, masochism, pedophilia, hetero- and homosexuality
• Magnus Hirschfeld
o First sex research institute, first large-scale sex survey
1
, o Homosexual, transvestite (also coined the term transvestite)
• Alfred Kinsey
o Massive surveys of human sexual behavior
• Masters & Johnson
o Investigation of sexual disorders and the physiology of sexual response
• Margaret Mead & Bronislaw Malinowski
o Sexual behavior in other cultures
Scientific study of sex is no separate, unified academic discipline (like biology or psychology)
→ Interdisciplinary (biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, physicians)
→ Sexuality is complex
SEX AND THE MEDIA
Mass media may play same role in human sexuality as religion did in previous centuries
• Cultivation theory: people begin to think that what they see on television and in other media really
represents the mainstream of what happens in real life in our culture
• Framing theory: the media draw attention to certain topics and not to others, suggesting how we
should think about or frame the issues
o The media don’t just tell us what to think about, but also how to think about it
• Social cognitive theory: how the media influence our behavior, thoughts, and emotions through
processes such as modeling, imitation, and identification
• Selectivity: people select and pay attention only to certain media and their messages
o People can be affected only by media to which they are exposed
o People don’t select media randomly: we select media content according to our own needs,
and we seek information that is consistent with our own views
• Reinforcing spiral theory: one’s social identities, beliefs and ideologies and one’s media use
influence each other (consistent with selectivity)
• Differential susceptibility model: not everyone reacts the same to the same media exposure
SEX AND CULTURE
Culture: the part of the environment created by humans, including the set of meanings that a group adopts
→ These meanings facilitate social coordination, clarify where boundaries between groups lie, and
make life seem predictable
Individualistic cultures: independence, autonomy, individual rights of people
→ US, Canada
Collectivistic cultures: interdependence, connections among people
→ Group is more important than individual
→ Asian cultures (e.g. Japan)
Honor cultures: individuals’ reputation, showing respect/honor
→ Stone a woman who committed adultery to death (she violated the honor valued in the culture)
→ Middle East, southern US
Ethnocentrism: the tendency to regard one’s own ethnic group and culture as superior to others and to
believe that its customs and way of life are the standards by which other cultures should be judged
→ We tend to view our sexual behavior as the only “natural” behavior
→ But sexual behavior and attitude vary greatly across cultures
→ They have one thing in common: all societies regulate sexual behavior in some way
o Prohibition of incest (= intercourse between blood relatives)
o Condemnation of forced sexual relations (e.g. rape)
But the exact regulations vary greatly from one culture to the next
CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN SEXUAL TECHNIQUES
→ Not all sexual techniques (kissing, cunnilingus) are omnipresent across cultures
→ In some societies, sex involves inflicting pain on each other
→ Great variations in sexual intercourse frequency and attitudes toward masturbation
→ Considerable differences in attitudes toward premarital sex
2
, → Extramarital sex is condemned in most cultures
→ Very different attitudes toward homosexuality (NL, Denmark & Sweden are most positive)
But no matter the society’s attitudes towards homosexuality
o Same-gender sexuality is found universally in all societies
o Same-gender sexual behavior is never the predominant form of sexual behavior for adults
→ In some cultures, sexuality is not seen as an unvarying, lifelong characteristic of the self
o Individualism is downplayed
o A person is defined in relation to others
o Behavior is the product of the situation
CULTURAL STANDARDS OF ATTRACTIVENESS
Physical characteristics are important in choosing a sex partner in all human societies
Standard of attractiveness varies widely, but in most cultures…
• A plump woman is considered more attractive than a thin one
• A poor complexion is considered unattractive
VARIATIONS WITHIN U.S. CULTURE
Even large variations in sexual behavior within the U.S.
• Social class differences
→ Higher education → more likely to use contraceptive pill → women can continue their education
and graduate from college
→ Higher education → more likely for first premarital cohabitations to transition into marriage
• Ethnic differences
→ Ethnic-group variations and similarities between African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans,
American Indians, and White people
→ Cultural context is the key: the sexuality of any particular group can be understood only by
understanding the cultural heritage and current social and economic conditions of the group
African Americans
• Their sexuality is influenced by the legacies of the Victorian era and the influence of the Judeo-
Christian tradition
• 3 factors that distinguish their sexuality from white people’s sexuality
o The African heritage
o Slavery
o Current economic and social conditions
→ Black Americans are significantly more likely to live in neighborhoods characterized by
racial segregation, poverty, and unemployment
Latinos
• Gender roles are sharply defined and these roles are emphasized from an early age
o Machismo: maleness/virility
▪ The man is responsible for the well-being & honor of his family
▪ Tolerating men’s sexual infidelities
o Marianismo: femaleness
▪ Motherhood is highly valued
▪ Virginity until marriage
o Familismo: an important cultural value that emphasizes the importance of family—nuclear
and extended—in matters such as support, loyalty, solidarity, and family honor
Asian Americans
• Repressive about sexuality; sexually conservative ethnic group
• 3 core values that affect their sexuality:
o Collectivism: others’ (especially family’s) needs should be considered before one’s own
Open expression of some forms of sexuality would represent a threat to the highly
interdependent social structure as well as to the family
o Conformity to norms: individual should conform to family’s and society’s expectations
Shame and the threat of loss of face are powerful forces in shaping good behavior
3
, o Emotional control: emotions (such as love or passion) should not be openly expressed, but
should be muted and controlled
American Indians
• Traditional cultures had strict courtship rules that regulated premarital sex
• However, today the youth feel great pressure to have sex at a young age (13)
• Not much data available
Racial microaggressions: subtle insults directed at people of color and often done nonconsciously
→ The concept of microaggressions also extends to gender microaggressions, sexual orientation
microaggressions, and microaggressions against transgender persons
SIGNIFICANCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES
Cross-cultural data are relevant to the understanding of human sexuality
• They show enormous variation in human sexual behavior
• They help put our own standards and behavior in perspective
• They show importance of culture and learning in shaping of human sexual behavior
→ Human sexual behavior is not completely determined by biology or drives or instincts
SEX AND SPECIES
We compare human sexual behavior to the sexual behavior of other species
• To put our own behavior in evolutionary perspective
• To give a less biased view of “natural” and “unnatural” sexual behavior
Masturbation, mouth-genital stimulation, and same-gender sexual behaviors are found across species
→ Basic mammalian heritage is bisexual
→ Personal note: same-gender behavior in non-human species indicates that animal’s motivation for
sex is not just reproduction, that homosexual behavior is not unnatural, and that homosexuality is
not “trendy” (I hear elderly people say: “Nowadays everyone seems to be gay”)
Flirting and female orgasms were found in female primates
Lower species (e.g. fish, rodents) → sexual behavior is more hormonally (instinctively) controlled
Higher species (e.g. primates, humans) → sexual behavior is more controlled by brain and learning in
social context
→ Sexual behavior of higher species is more susceptible to environmental influences
→ For humans, sexual behavior is a lot more than just “doin’ what comes naturally”
→ Perhaps this explains female orgasm in primates and humans: they are not driven to sexual activity
by hormones, but have the pleasure of orgasm as an incentive
Not much in sexuality is completely unique to humans, except for complex cultural influences
→ You could say we are on a continuum with other species
NONSEXUAL USES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Sometimes animals use sexual behavior for nonsexual purposes
→ E.g. to end a fight: the loser indicates his surrender by taking on the “female” sexual posture; the
winner signals victory by mounting the loser
→ Sexual behaviors can also symbolize an animal’s rank in a dominance hierarchy
Dominant animals mount subordinate ones
Humans also use sex for nonsexual purposes
→ The rapist, who uses sex as an expression of aggression against and power over a woman
→ The exhibitionist, who uses the display of his erect penis to shock and frighten women
→ The couple that is fighting and then make love to signal an end to the hostilities
→ The woman who goes to bed with an influential (unattractive) politician because this gives her a
sense of power
→ For economic purposes: prostitutes
4
DEFINITIONS OF SEX
Gender: being male, female, or some other gender such as trans
• Many Americans think sex = “penis-in-vagina intercourse”
o Assumption that sex is heterosexual
o What about oral-genital intercourse?
• Biologists say sex = “any behavior that increases the likelihood of gametic union [union of sperm
and egg]”
→ Emphasizes reproductive function of sex
→ Medical advances (e.g. birth control pill) separate reproduction from sex
→ Assumption that sex is heterosexual
• Kinsey said sex = “behavior that leads to orgasm”
→ Women that don’t climax during sex didn’t have sex?
Sexual behavior: behavior that produces arousal and increases the chance of orgasm
SEX AND RELIGION
Different religions have different understandings of human sexuality
→ Ancient Greek myth: original humans were double creatures with twice the normal number of limbs
and organs; double males, double females, and half-male-half-females → origin of hetero- vs
homosexuality
→ 15th-century Christian belief: “wet dreams” result from intercourse with tiny spiritual creatures
called incubi and succubi
→ Muslim belief: sexual intercourse is one of the finest pleasures of life, reflecting the teachings of the
great prophet Muhammad
SEX AND SCIENCE
Scientific study of sex began in 19th century (norms about sexuality were very rigid and oppressive)
• Sigmund Freud
o Psychoanalytica
o (See later chapters)
• Henry Havelock Ellis
o Objective and tolerant
o Believed that women, like men, are sexual creatures
o Urged society to accept sexual deviations
o Collect information on human sexuality, instead of making judgments
o Forerunner of modern sex research
• Richard von Krafft-Ebing
o Not objective, nor tolerant
o Pathological sexuality (= caused by mental illness)
o Coined the concepts sadism, masochism, pedophilia, hetero- and homosexuality
• Magnus Hirschfeld
o First sex research institute, first large-scale sex survey
1
, o Homosexual, transvestite (also coined the term transvestite)
• Alfred Kinsey
o Massive surveys of human sexual behavior
• Masters & Johnson
o Investigation of sexual disorders and the physiology of sexual response
• Margaret Mead & Bronislaw Malinowski
o Sexual behavior in other cultures
Scientific study of sex is no separate, unified academic discipline (like biology or psychology)
→ Interdisciplinary (biology, psychology, sociology, anthropology, physicians)
→ Sexuality is complex
SEX AND THE MEDIA
Mass media may play same role in human sexuality as religion did in previous centuries
• Cultivation theory: people begin to think that what they see on television and in other media really
represents the mainstream of what happens in real life in our culture
• Framing theory: the media draw attention to certain topics and not to others, suggesting how we
should think about or frame the issues
o The media don’t just tell us what to think about, but also how to think about it
• Social cognitive theory: how the media influence our behavior, thoughts, and emotions through
processes such as modeling, imitation, and identification
• Selectivity: people select and pay attention only to certain media and their messages
o People can be affected only by media to which they are exposed
o People don’t select media randomly: we select media content according to our own needs,
and we seek information that is consistent with our own views
• Reinforcing spiral theory: one’s social identities, beliefs and ideologies and one’s media use
influence each other (consistent with selectivity)
• Differential susceptibility model: not everyone reacts the same to the same media exposure
SEX AND CULTURE
Culture: the part of the environment created by humans, including the set of meanings that a group adopts
→ These meanings facilitate social coordination, clarify where boundaries between groups lie, and
make life seem predictable
Individualistic cultures: independence, autonomy, individual rights of people
→ US, Canada
Collectivistic cultures: interdependence, connections among people
→ Group is more important than individual
→ Asian cultures (e.g. Japan)
Honor cultures: individuals’ reputation, showing respect/honor
→ Stone a woman who committed adultery to death (she violated the honor valued in the culture)
→ Middle East, southern US
Ethnocentrism: the tendency to regard one’s own ethnic group and culture as superior to others and to
believe that its customs and way of life are the standards by which other cultures should be judged
→ We tend to view our sexual behavior as the only “natural” behavior
→ But sexual behavior and attitude vary greatly across cultures
→ They have one thing in common: all societies regulate sexual behavior in some way
o Prohibition of incest (= intercourse between blood relatives)
o Condemnation of forced sexual relations (e.g. rape)
But the exact regulations vary greatly from one culture to the next
CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN SEXUAL TECHNIQUES
→ Not all sexual techniques (kissing, cunnilingus) are omnipresent across cultures
→ In some societies, sex involves inflicting pain on each other
→ Great variations in sexual intercourse frequency and attitudes toward masturbation
→ Considerable differences in attitudes toward premarital sex
2
, → Extramarital sex is condemned in most cultures
→ Very different attitudes toward homosexuality (NL, Denmark & Sweden are most positive)
But no matter the society’s attitudes towards homosexuality
o Same-gender sexuality is found universally in all societies
o Same-gender sexual behavior is never the predominant form of sexual behavior for adults
→ In some cultures, sexuality is not seen as an unvarying, lifelong characteristic of the self
o Individualism is downplayed
o A person is defined in relation to others
o Behavior is the product of the situation
CULTURAL STANDARDS OF ATTRACTIVENESS
Physical characteristics are important in choosing a sex partner in all human societies
Standard of attractiveness varies widely, but in most cultures…
• A plump woman is considered more attractive than a thin one
• A poor complexion is considered unattractive
VARIATIONS WITHIN U.S. CULTURE
Even large variations in sexual behavior within the U.S.
• Social class differences
→ Higher education → more likely to use contraceptive pill → women can continue their education
and graduate from college
→ Higher education → more likely for first premarital cohabitations to transition into marriage
• Ethnic differences
→ Ethnic-group variations and similarities between African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans,
American Indians, and White people
→ Cultural context is the key: the sexuality of any particular group can be understood only by
understanding the cultural heritage and current social and economic conditions of the group
African Americans
• Their sexuality is influenced by the legacies of the Victorian era and the influence of the Judeo-
Christian tradition
• 3 factors that distinguish their sexuality from white people’s sexuality
o The African heritage
o Slavery
o Current economic and social conditions
→ Black Americans are significantly more likely to live in neighborhoods characterized by
racial segregation, poverty, and unemployment
Latinos
• Gender roles are sharply defined and these roles are emphasized from an early age
o Machismo: maleness/virility
▪ The man is responsible for the well-being & honor of his family
▪ Tolerating men’s sexual infidelities
o Marianismo: femaleness
▪ Motherhood is highly valued
▪ Virginity until marriage
o Familismo: an important cultural value that emphasizes the importance of family—nuclear
and extended—in matters such as support, loyalty, solidarity, and family honor
Asian Americans
• Repressive about sexuality; sexually conservative ethnic group
• 3 core values that affect their sexuality:
o Collectivism: others’ (especially family’s) needs should be considered before one’s own
Open expression of some forms of sexuality would represent a threat to the highly
interdependent social structure as well as to the family
o Conformity to norms: individual should conform to family’s and society’s expectations
Shame and the threat of loss of face are powerful forces in shaping good behavior
3
, o Emotional control: emotions (such as love or passion) should not be openly expressed, but
should be muted and controlled
American Indians
• Traditional cultures had strict courtship rules that regulated premarital sex
• However, today the youth feel great pressure to have sex at a young age (13)
• Not much data available
Racial microaggressions: subtle insults directed at people of color and often done nonconsciously
→ The concept of microaggressions also extends to gender microaggressions, sexual orientation
microaggressions, and microaggressions against transgender persons
SIGNIFICANCE OF CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES
Cross-cultural data are relevant to the understanding of human sexuality
• They show enormous variation in human sexual behavior
• They help put our own standards and behavior in perspective
• They show importance of culture and learning in shaping of human sexual behavior
→ Human sexual behavior is not completely determined by biology or drives or instincts
SEX AND SPECIES
We compare human sexual behavior to the sexual behavior of other species
• To put our own behavior in evolutionary perspective
• To give a less biased view of “natural” and “unnatural” sexual behavior
Masturbation, mouth-genital stimulation, and same-gender sexual behaviors are found across species
→ Basic mammalian heritage is bisexual
→ Personal note: same-gender behavior in non-human species indicates that animal’s motivation for
sex is not just reproduction, that homosexual behavior is not unnatural, and that homosexuality is
not “trendy” (I hear elderly people say: “Nowadays everyone seems to be gay”)
Flirting and female orgasms were found in female primates
Lower species (e.g. fish, rodents) → sexual behavior is more hormonally (instinctively) controlled
Higher species (e.g. primates, humans) → sexual behavior is more controlled by brain and learning in
social context
→ Sexual behavior of higher species is more susceptible to environmental influences
→ For humans, sexual behavior is a lot more than just “doin’ what comes naturally”
→ Perhaps this explains female orgasm in primates and humans: they are not driven to sexual activity
by hormones, but have the pleasure of orgasm as an incentive
Not much in sexuality is completely unique to humans, except for complex cultural influences
→ You could say we are on a continuum with other species
NONSEXUAL USES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Sometimes animals use sexual behavior for nonsexual purposes
→ E.g. to end a fight: the loser indicates his surrender by taking on the “female” sexual posture; the
winner signals victory by mounting the loser
→ Sexual behaviors can also symbolize an animal’s rank in a dominance hierarchy
Dominant animals mount subordinate ones
Humans also use sex for nonsexual purposes
→ The rapist, who uses sex as an expression of aggression against and power over a woman
→ The exhibitionist, who uses the display of his erect penis to shock and frighten women
→ The couple that is fighting and then make love to signal an end to the hostilities
→ The woman who goes to bed with an influential (unattractive) politician because this gives her a
sense of power
→ For economic purposes: prostitutes
4
