Samenvatting motivatie & zelfsturende mens
Boek
H1
Motivation: condition inside us that desires change in either self or environment
Studying motivation interesting and practical implications
Motivational studies belongs to behavioral science and is empirical and scientific
Reality theory application and hypotheses data theory P5
Two fundamental questions in study of motivation:
- What causes behavior? (why)
- Why does behavior vary in its intensity?
These questions answered through table P13
Components of motivation:
- Energy = strength of behavior: intense, hardy, resilient
- Direction = purpose: aimed or guided to goal or outcome
- Persistence = endurance: sustains itself over time across different situations
Internal motives (needs, cognitions and emotions) energize, direct and sustain behavior
1. Needs = conditions in individual essential for maintenance of life and for
nurturance of growth and well-being
2. Cognitions = mental event: ways of thinking, mindset, beliefs, expectations
3. Emotions = complex coordinated feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive reactions
to events generate brief attention-getting bursts of emergency-like adaptive
behaviors: generate and synchronize four aspects into unified whole:
- Feelings: subjective verbal descriptions of emotion
- Arousal: bodily mobilization to cope with situational demands
- Purpose: motivational urge to accomplish something at moment
- Expression: nonverbal communication of emotion
Power of incentives/rewards traceable to dopamine discharge that occurs in subcortical
brain when you expect the delivery of valued reward
Influence is external, motivation is internal
5 ways to measure motivation, which is hard since it’s internal:
- Behavior: looking at effort, persistence, latency, choice, probability of response,
facial expressions and bodily gestures P11
- Engagement: how actively involved person is
Behavioral engagement: how effortfully involved during activity in terms of
effort and persistence
Emotional engagement: presence positive emotions
Cognitive engagement: how strategically person attempts to process info and
to learn
Agentic engagement: extent of person’s proactive and constructive
contribution into flow of activity in terms of asking questions, expressing
preferences and letting others know what one wants and needs
- Psychophysiology: measurements of physiological parameters
- Brain activations: P12
thirst = hypothalamus
disgust = insular cortex
, - Self-report: interviews and questionnaire (not so reliable)
10 unifying themes/assumptions on motivation
1. Motivation and emotion benefit adaptation and functioning
High-quality motivation adaptability and thriving life
2. Motivation and emotion direct attention
Motivations vary in strength and negative stimuli and events are more attention-
getting than positive ones
3. Motivation and emotion are ‘intervening variables’
They mediate/intervene between causes (antecedents) and effects to explain the
why that underlies cause-effect relations. They do so either directly or indirectly
4. Motives vary over time and influence ongoing stream of behavior
Strongest motive typically most influence but subordinate motive can become
dominant when circumstances change
5. Types of motivations exist
Intrinsic – extrinsic, to approach and to avoid. Intrinsically motivated students and
students who approach success instead of avoiding failure perform better
6. We are not always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our behavior
Conscious, verbally available motives in cortical brain. Other nonlanguage structured
motives in subcortical brain
7. Motivation study reveals what people want
Lot of motivation-behavior is nature due to communality in which humans are wired,
on the other side part of motives also culturally adopted. Humans have several
natures (good and bad), which one expressed depends also on environment
8. To flourish, motivations needs supportive conditions
Supportive environment is needed in education, work, sports and therapy
9. When trying to motivate others, what is easy to do is rarely what works
not all attempts to motivate others and self are successful and what is easy to do is
rarely most effective.
10. There is nothing so practical as a good theory
H2
Motivation studies relative new but originate form Greeks, Plato (Freud/Aristotle):
- Calculating aspect: decision-making, reason and choosing (highest) (ego/rational)
- Competitive aspect: socially standards such as honor and shame (superego/sensitive)
- Appetitive aspect: bodily appetites (Id/nutritive)
Higher aspects can control lower aspects
Later triangle became dualism (body/mind)
Aquinas: body creates irrational pleasure-based motivation, mind creates rational will-based
motivation
Descartes: body mechanical and motivationally passive agent, will is immaterial and
motivationally active agent. Understanding will = understanding motivation
Studying the will was futile because hard to grasp what it’s nature is
,Darwin shifted focus on mind more to body and ended dualism man-animal
Instinct = prewired intuition will now became more substantial (genetic)
James: first instinct theory of motivation (stimulus – response)
McDougall: instinct theory about explore, fight, mother offspring etc. He regarded instincts
as irrational, impulsive and automatic motivational forces toward particular goal
McDougall’s difference in comparison to James is that McDougall said: without instincts
human beings would initiate no action: all human motivation’s origin is genetically endowed
instincts. This isn’t true because 2 individuals reared in different environment behave
differently.
After instinct and will came drive (Freud & Hull) = feeling experienced when out of
homeostasis
Psychological drive emerged from bodily needs
Freud: all behavior motivated and purpose is to serve satisfaction of bodily needs (that are
ongoing and create energy build-ups in nervous system)
P29 Freud’s drive theory table
Too much build-up threatens health, drive is the warning system to unload
Source (bodily deficit) impetus (intensity deficit grows and emerges into consciousness as
discomfort) object (seeking to reduce deficit) aim (if object satisfies needs you feel
satisfied)
Hull: drive was pooled energy source composed of all current bodily deficits. All needs
summed to total bodily need. Motivation purely bodily basis. High/low motivation could be
predicted (unique) and manipulated depending on duration of deprivation. Manipulation of
motivation lead to birth of motivation studies. Drive is the energizer but doesn’t directly
direct behavior. Habit directs behavior. Habits come from learning, which is consequence of
reinforcement. If response followed by reduction of drive, learning has occurred and is
reinforced.
sEr = sHr x D (x K)
sEr = strength of behavior (excitatory potential) in presence of stimulus
sHr = habit strength (probability that drive-reducing response occurs in presence of stimulus)
D = drive (internal push)
Later he added K = incentive information (external pull)
Miller: “Drive, cue, response, reward” thirst – water – drink – reinforcement
Assumptions drive theory:
- Drive emerged from bodily needs
- Drive energized behavior
- Drive reduction was reinforcing and produced learning
However, some motives emerge without biological need: anorexia
Also, external sources of motivation exist
Lastly, learning often occurs without drive reduction and sometimes learning occurs after
drive increase
, 2 post-drive motivational principles:
- Incentive = external event or stimulus that energizes and directs approach or
avoidance behavior (incentive value of object determines strength of ‘pull’ instead of
push by drive) hedonism. This theory offered 3 new features
1. New motivational concepts
2. Idea that motivational states could be acquired through experience instead of
inherent biology
3. Portrayal of motivation that highlighted moment-to-moment changes
- Arousal: central ideas
1. Arousal represents variety of processes that govern alertness, wakefulness, and
activation
2. Person’s arousal level is mostly function of how stimulating environment is
3. Moderate arousal level coincides with experience of pleasure and optimal
performance
4. People engage in strategic behavior to increase or decrease level of arousal
5. When underaroused seek opportunities to increase arousal: increases in
environmental stimulation are pleasurable and enhance performance and vice
versa
6. When overaroused seek to decrease arousal: increases are aversive, decreases
are pleasurable
These 6 arousal principles = inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance/well-
being P33 by Yerkes & Dodson
Low stimulation boredom/restlessness
High stimulation tension/stress
People seek optimal level of arousal (not too high and not too low)
So far 4 grand theories: will, instinct, drive, arousal (all till roughly 1950)
Then came mini-theories (list P33/34) (all since 1950)
3 trends why shift from grand theories to mini theories:
1. Active nature of the person: before 1960: humans by nature inactive and drive is
what activates them. Nowadays: humans by nature always active
2. Cognitive revolution: less focus on biology and more on mental landscape
motivation moved to backstage. More humanness instead of assumption that
humans are mechanical animalistic merely instinctive creatures (humanism: Maslow
and Rogers)
3. Socially relevant questions: research used more for socially relevant topics more
overlap with other disciplines
Kuhn: disciplines make continuous (gradual) and discontinuous (radical) progress
- Preparadigmatic stage: different questions/methods, lots of arguing, chaos
- Paradigmatic stage: consensus on theory and methods until new anomaly arises
Descartes: passion = intense emotional uproar
His vision: passive individual goes along well in life until environmental event (or
object/human) produces passion (takes control over thought and action). Passion now is
called emotion
Boek
H1
Motivation: condition inside us that desires change in either self or environment
Studying motivation interesting and practical implications
Motivational studies belongs to behavioral science and is empirical and scientific
Reality theory application and hypotheses data theory P5
Two fundamental questions in study of motivation:
- What causes behavior? (why)
- Why does behavior vary in its intensity?
These questions answered through table P13
Components of motivation:
- Energy = strength of behavior: intense, hardy, resilient
- Direction = purpose: aimed or guided to goal or outcome
- Persistence = endurance: sustains itself over time across different situations
Internal motives (needs, cognitions and emotions) energize, direct and sustain behavior
1. Needs = conditions in individual essential for maintenance of life and for
nurturance of growth and well-being
2. Cognitions = mental event: ways of thinking, mindset, beliefs, expectations
3. Emotions = complex coordinated feeling-arousal-purposive-expressive reactions
to events generate brief attention-getting bursts of emergency-like adaptive
behaviors: generate and synchronize four aspects into unified whole:
- Feelings: subjective verbal descriptions of emotion
- Arousal: bodily mobilization to cope with situational demands
- Purpose: motivational urge to accomplish something at moment
- Expression: nonverbal communication of emotion
Power of incentives/rewards traceable to dopamine discharge that occurs in subcortical
brain when you expect the delivery of valued reward
Influence is external, motivation is internal
5 ways to measure motivation, which is hard since it’s internal:
- Behavior: looking at effort, persistence, latency, choice, probability of response,
facial expressions and bodily gestures P11
- Engagement: how actively involved person is
Behavioral engagement: how effortfully involved during activity in terms of
effort and persistence
Emotional engagement: presence positive emotions
Cognitive engagement: how strategically person attempts to process info and
to learn
Agentic engagement: extent of person’s proactive and constructive
contribution into flow of activity in terms of asking questions, expressing
preferences and letting others know what one wants and needs
- Psychophysiology: measurements of physiological parameters
- Brain activations: P12
thirst = hypothalamus
disgust = insular cortex
, - Self-report: interviews and questionnaire (not so reliable)
10 unifying themes/assumptions on motivation
1. Motivation and emotion benefit adaptation and functioning
High-quality motivation adaptability and thriving life
2. Motivation and emotion direct attention
Motivations vary in strength and negative stimuli and events are more attention-
getting than positive ones
3. Motivation and emotion are ‘intervening variables’
They mediate/intervene between causes (antecedents) and effects to explain the
why that underlies cause-effect relations. They do so either directly or indirectly
4. Motives vary over time and influence ongoing stream of behavior
Strongest motive typically most influence but subordinate motive can become
dominant when circumstances change
5. Types of motivations exist
Intrinsic – extrinsic, to approach and to avoid. Intrinsically motivated students and
students who approach success instead of avoiding failure perform better
6. We are not always consciously aware of the motivational basis of our behavior
Conscious, verbally available motives in cortical brain. Other nonlanguage structured
motives in subcortical brain
7. Motivation study reveals what people want
Lot of motivation-behavior is nature due to communality in which humans are wired,
on the other side part of motives also culturally adopted. Humans have several
natures (good and bad), which one expressed depends also on environment
8. To flourish, motivations needs supportive conditions
Supportive environment is needed in education, work, sports and therapy
9. When trying to motivate others, what is easy to do is rarely what works
not all attempts to motivate others and self are successful and what is easy to do is
rarely most effective.
10. There is nothing so practical as a good theory
H2
Motivation studies relative new but originate form Greeks, Plato (Freud/Aristotle):
- Calculating aspect: decision-making, reason and choosing (highest) (ego/rational)
- Competitive aspect: socially standards such as honor and shame (superego/sensitive)
- Appetitive aspect: bodily appetites (Id/nutritive)
Higher aspects can control lower aspects
Later triangle became dualism (body/mind)
Aquinas: body creates irrational pleasure-based motivation, mind creates rational will-based
motivation
Descartes: body mechanical and motivationally passive agent, will is immaterial and
motivationally active agent. Understanding will = understanding motivation
Studying the will was futile because hard to grasp what it’s nature is
,Darwin shifted focus on mind more to body and ended dualism man-animal
Instinct = prewired intuition will now became more substantial (genetic)
James: first instinct theory of motivation (stimulus – response)
McDougall: instinct theory about explore, fight, mother offspring etc. He regarded instincts
as irrational, impulsive and automatic motivational forces toward particular goal
McDougall’s difference in comparison to James is that McDougall said: without instincts
human beings would initiate no action: all human motivation’s origin is genetically endowed
instincts. This isn’t true because 2 individuals reared in different environment behave
differently.
After instinct and will came drive (Freud & Hull) = feeling experienced when out of
homeostasis
Psychological drive emerged from bodily needs
Freud: all behavior motivated and purpose is to serve satisfaction of bodily needs (that are
ongoing and create energy build-ups in nervous system)
P29 Freud’s drive theory table
Too much build-up threatens health, drive is the warning system to unload
Source (bodily deficit) impetus (intensity deficit grows and emerges into consciousness as
discomfort) object (seeking to reduce deficit) aim (if object satisfies needs you feel
satisfied)
Hull: drive was pooled energy source composed of all current bodily deficits. All needs
summed to total bodily need. Motivation purely bodily basis. High/low motivation could be
predicted (unique) and manipulated depending on duration of deprivation. Manipulation of
motivation lead to birth of motivation studies. Drive is the energizer but doesn’t directly
direct behavior. Habit directs behavior. Habits come from learning, which is consequence of
reinforcement. If response followed by reduction of drive, learning has occurred and is
reinforced.
sEr = sHr x D (x K)
sEr = strength of behavior (excitatory potential) in presence of stimulus
sHr = habit strength (probability that drive-reducing response occurs in presence of stimulus)
D = drive (internal push)
Later he added K = incentive information (external pull)
Miller: “Drive, cue, response, reward” thirst – water – drink – reinforcement
Assumptions drive theory:
- Drive emerged from bodily needs
- Drive energized behavior
- Drive reduction was reinforcing and produced learning
However, some motives emerge without biological need: anorexia
Also, external sources of motivation exist
Lastly, learning often occurs without drive reduction and sometimes learning occurs after
drive increase
, 2 post-drive motivational principles:
- Incentive = external event or stimulus that energizes and directs approach or
avoidance behavior (incentive value of object determines strength of ‘pull’ instead of
push by drive) hedonism. This theory offered 3 new features
1. New motivational concepts
2. Idea that motivational states could be acquired through experience instead of
inherent biology
3. Portrayal of motivation that highlighted moment-to-moment changes
- Arousal: central ideas
1. Arousal represents variety of processes that govern alertness, wakefulness, and
activation
2. Person’s arousal level is mostly function of how stimulating environment is
3. Moderate arousal level coincides with experience of pleasure and optimal
performance
4. People engage in strategic behavior to increase or decrease level of arousal
5. When underaroused seek opportunities to increase arousal: increases in
environmental stimulation are pleasurable and enhance performance and vice
versa
6. When overaroused seek to decrease arousal: increases are aversive, decreases
are pleasurable
These 6 arousal principles = inverted-U relationship between arousal and performance/well-
being P33 by Yerkes & Dodson
Low stimulation boredom/restlessness
High stimulation tension/stress
People seek optimal level of arousal (not too high and not too low)
So far 4 grand theories: will, instinct, drive, arousal (all till roughly 1950)
Then came mini-theories (list P33/34) (all since 1950)
3 trends why shift from grand theories to mini theories:
1. Active nature of the person: before 1960: humans by nature inactive and drive is
what activates them. Nowadays: humans by nature always active
2. Cognitive revolution: less focus on biology and more on mental landscape
motivation moved to backstage. More humanness instead of assumption that
humans are mechanical animalistic merely instinctive creatures (humanism: Maslow
and Rogers)
3. Socially relevant questions: research used more for socially relevant topics more
overlap with other disciplines
Kuhn: disciplines make continuous (gradual) and discontinuous (radical) progress
- Preparadigmatic stage: different questions/methods, lots of arguing, chaos
- Paradigmatic stage: consensus on theory and methods until new anomaly arises
Descartes: passion = intense emotional uproar
His vision: passive individual goes along well in life until environmental event (or
object/human) produces passion (takes control over thought and action). Passion now is
called emotion
