Risk Behavior and Addiction in Adolescence
Lecture 1: Introduction
Four levels of influence:
1. Neurobiological level
2. Psychological level
3. Social level
4. Broader societal level
Peak in risk taking behavior in adolescence (relatively low in childhood, peaking in adolescence and declining
when young people grow old).
Adolescence
Early adolescence (aged 10-13): physical growth, sexual maturation, psychosocial and psychosexual
development, social identity formation.
Mid adolescence (aged 14-18): experimenting with (risk) behaviors), personal identity formation.
Late adolescence (aged 19-24): practicing adult roles.
Neurological development during adolescence
1. Strong grow in brain volume: increase in white matter (connections), decrease in grey matter (nerve
cells).
a. Pruning (snoeien): if you don’t use is, you lose it.
2. Increase in white matter: communication between brain regions strongly improves.
a. Long term memory increases.
b. Capacity for abstract thinking/metacognition increases.
3. High plasticity: both positive and negative experiences will have relatively strong effects.
4. The speed of the development of different brain regions differs.
a. The affective-motivational system (emotional bran) develops much faster than the control
system (rational brain).
Development affective-motivational system (emotional bran).
During early and mid-adolescence, the affective-motivational system in the brain (reward center) of
the brain is overactive.
Adolescents experience stronger emotions than adults when they receive or anticipate a reward
o This process is enhanced by
testosterone.
Development control system (rational brain)
The rational brain (centered in de prefrontal
cortex) develops slowly (much slower than
the emotional brain)
The rational brain plays an important role in
the development of executive functions:
o Risk estimation.
o Monitoring long-term goals.
o Response inhibition: inhibition of the
tendency to react to (short-term)
possibilities for reward (behavioral
inhibition, self-control).
,The Maturational Imbalance Model
Increased risk-taking during adolescence is a
result of an imbalance between motivational
bottom up versus controlling top down
processes (heightened reward sensitivity vs.
immature impulse control).
Alternative theory
The adaptive adolescence view: the teen is not only
‘work in progress’ but can be looked upon as ‘an
exclusive sensitive, highly adaptable creature wired almost perfectly for the job of moving from the safety of
home into the complicated world outside’.
Addiction: the general process.
Contact with a substance experimenting with a substance integrated use excessive use addicted
use.
What we tend to regard as ‘risk behavior’ depends on…
Characteristics of the particular substance of behavior.
o For instance, smoking versus gaming.
Cultural and societal norms:
o Example: alcohol use in western versus Islamic cultures.
Scientific knowledge:
o Example: knowledge on the risks of alcohol use for the cognitive development of adolescents.
How can we define drugs or psychoactive substances?
Psychoactive substances are chemical substances that cross the blood-brain barrier and affect the function of
the central nervous system thereby altering perception, mood or consciousness (e.g. high, euphoria,
relaxation).
Other characteristics of psychoactive substances:
They often induce craving after (regular) use.
They often evoke loss of control after they have been used (regularly).
Psychoactive substances differ in…
Type and strength of the psychoactive effect.
The degree to which they elicit craving and loss of
control.
Types of drugs (based on their psychoactive effects)
,How can we define addiction?
Sussman (2017) differentiates between intentional and extensional definitions of addiction:
o Intentional: these definitions aim to describe a causal adduction process.
o Extensional: a classification of characteristics of an addiction (e.g. DSM-5)
Substance use disorder (DSM-5)
At least two or more of the following, involving recurrent use over the last 12 months
Two learning principles underlying the development of addiction
1. Positive reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because a desirable event (e.g.
euphoria, relaxation) is resulting from the behavior.
2. Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event is
prevented from happening (e.g. prevention of withdrawal symptoms).
, Schematic
This decrease in the sensitivity of the brain reward system
Reduction number of dopamine receptors.
Making the existing receptors less sensitive to dopamine.
Results:
1. Tolerance = (needing a higher dose of the drug to have the same effect).
2. Withdrawal symptoms (during abstinence).
3. A reduces sensitivity to natural incentives.
a. Reduced sexual interest in cocaine users.
Cognitive theoretical models of risk behavior in adolescents
Rational decision-making models
Risk behavior seen as a rational (reflective) choice.
Example: benefits and costs of drinking?
Possible perceived benefits:
Pleasurable effects.
Pleasurable social bonding ritual.
Increased perceived social status within a group.
Possible perceived costs:
Actual costs.
Negative reactions from others.
Risk behavior seen as a rational (reflective) choice: e.g. Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
Lecture 1: Introduction
Four levels of influence:
1. Neurobiological level
2. Psychological level
3. Social level
4. Broader societal level
Peak in risk taking behavior in adolescence (relatively low in childhood, peaking in adolescence and declining
when young people grow old).
Adolescence
Early adolescence (aged 10-13): physical growth, sexual maturation, psychosocial and psychosexual
development, social identity formation.
Mid adolescence (aged 14-18): experimenting with (risk) behaviors), personal identity formation.
Late adolescence (aged 19-24): practicing adult roles.
Neurological development during adolescence
1. Strong grow in brain volume: increase in white matter (connections), decrease in grey matter (nerve
cells).
a. Pruning (snoeien): if you don’t use is, you lose it.
2. Increase in white matter: communication between brain regions strongly improves.
a. Long term memory increases.
b. Capacity for abstract thinking/metacognition increases.
3. High plasticity: both positive and negative experiences will have relatively strong effects.
4. The speed of the development of different brain regions differs.
a. The affective-motivational system (emotional bran) develops much faster than the control
system (rational brain).
Development affective-motivational system (emotional bran).
During early and mid-adolescence, the affective-motivational system in the brain (reward center) of
the brain is overactive.
Adolescents experience stronger emotions than adults when they receive or anticipate a reward
o This process is enhanced by
testosterone.
Development control system (rational brain)
The rational brain (centered in de prefrontal
cortex) develops slowly (much slower than
the emotional brain)
The rational brain plays an important role in
the development of executive functions:
o Risk estimation.
o Monitoring long-term goals.
o Response inhibition: inhibition of the
tendency to react to (short-term)
possibilities for reward (behavioral
inhibition, self-control).
,The Maturational Imbalance Model
Increased risk-taking during adolescence is a
result of an imbalance between motivational
bottom up versus controlling top down
processes (heightened reward sensitivity vs.
immature impulse control).
Alternative theory
The adaptive adolescence view: the teen is not only
‘work in progress’ but can be looked upon as ‘an
exclusive sensitive, highly adaptable creature wired almost perfectly for the job of moving from the safety of
home into the complicated world outside’.
Addiction: the general process.
Contact with a substance experimenting with a substance integrated use excessive use addicted
use.
What we tend to regard as ‘risk behavior’ depends on…
Characteristics of the particular substance of behavior.
o For instance, smoking versus gaming.
Cultural and societal norms:
o Example: alcohol use in western versus Islamic cultures.
Scientific knowledge:
o Example: knowledge on the risks of alcohol use for the cognitive development of adolescents.
How can we define drugs or psychoactive substances?
Psychoactive substances are chemical substances that cross the blood-brain barrier and affect the function of
the central nervous system thereby altering perception, mood or consciousness (e.g. high, euphoria,
relaxation).
Other characteristics of psychoactive substances:
They often induce craving after (regular) use.
They often evoke loss of control after they have been used (regularly).
Psychoactive substances differ in…
Type and strength of the psychoactive effect.
The degree to which they elicit craving and loss of
control.
Types of drugs (based on their psychoactive effects)
,How can we define addiction?
Sussman (2017) differentiates between intentional and extensional definitions of addiction:
o Intentional: these definitions aim to describe a causal adduction process.
o Extensional: a classification of characteristics of an addiction (e.g. DSM-5)
Substance use disorder (DSM-5)
At least two or more of the following, involving recurrent use over the last 12 months
Two learning principles underlying the development of addiction
1. Positive reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because a desirable event (e.g.
euphoria, relaxation) is resulting from the behavior.
2. Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event is
prevented from happening (e.g. prevention of withdrawal symptoms).
, Schematic
This decrease in the sensitivity of the brain reward system
Reduction number of dopamine receptors.
Making the existing receptors less sensitive to dopamine.
Results:
1. Tolerance = (needing a higher dose of the drug to have the same effect).
2. Withdrawal symptoms (during abstinence).
3. A reduces sensitivity to natural incentives.
a. Reduced sexual interest in cocaine users.
Cognitive theoretical models of risk behavior in adolescents
Rational decision-making models
Risk behavior seen as a rational (reflective) choice.
Example: benefits and costs of drinking?
Possible perceived benefits:
Pleasurable effects.
Pleasurable social bonding ritual.
Increased perceived social status within a group.
Possible perceived costs:
Actual costs.
Negative reactions from others.
Risk behavior seen as a rational (reflective) choice: e.g. Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991)
