Problem 5
Part A
Schemas
Schema- mental framework for organising knowledge- creates a meaningful
structure of related concepts
Slot- materials and the shapes within a schema
Similar to semantic networks except more task-oriented
Concepts and schemas may be viewed at many levels of analysis
Depends on mind of the individual and the context
(Sternberg Et Al.) Schemas have several characteristics ensuring wide flexibility in
their use:
1. Can include other schemas (eg. schema for plants, includes schema for herbs)
2. Encompass typical, general facts, that can vary slightly from one specific
instance to another (eg. schema for bird typically includes flying, not all birds
fly)
3. Can vary in degree of abstraction (eg. happiness is much more abstract than
schema for vegetables)
Can include info about relationships, inc. relationships about:
- Concepts (eg. link between fruit and veg)
- Attributes within concepts (eg. height and weight of a giraffe)
- Attributes in related concepts (eg. softness of a cushion and softness of a
carpet)
- Concepts and particular context (eg. astronauts and outer space)
- Specific concepts and general background knowledge
Schemas can give rise for stereotypes eg. 9.11, create schema for type of
person we believe responsible, means associate certain group of people
with terrorism
Scripts
Script- particular kind of schema containing info about the particular order in which
things occur
Less flexible than schemas
Include default values for the actors, props, setting, sequence of events
expected to occur
o Together composes event overview
Study
Method: Asked to read 18 brief stories
Perform 1 of 2 tasks
1. Recall task- recall as much as possible about each of the stories
2. Recognition task- presented with sentences, asked to rate on a 7-point
scale their confidence that they had seen of the sentences: some from
stories, others weren’t: sentences not from stories, some were relevant
scripts others weren’t
Results: Recall- significant tendency to recall elements not actually in the stories, but
parts of scripts of the stories
Recognition- likelier characterise particular non-story sentences as coming
from the stories, if the non-story sentences were script-relevant than if non-story
sentences were not script relevant
Significance: scripts guide what people recall, recognise, and know
May be involved in ways experts converse with and write for one another:
share a jargon- specialised vocabulary commonly used within a group
Schema Theory: Bartlett
Schemas include scripts (deal with events and consequences of events) and frames-
knowledge structures referring to some aspect of the world
Ghosh and Gilboa: Schemas possess 4 necessary and sufficient features:
, 1. Associative structure- schemas consist of interconnected units
2. Basis in multiple episodes- schemas consist of integrated information
based on several similar events
3. Lack of unit detail- follows from variability events f
4. rom which any given schema is formed
5. Adaptability- schemas change and adapt over time as they are updated in
the light of new info
- Several definitions of schema used by theorists
Importance of Schemas
Contain much info needed to understand what we hear and read
Allow us to form expectations, making world predictable
Can influence story comprehension
o Study (Bransford and Johnson):
Method: gave participants unclear passage, with or without title: if title,
either before or after reading passage
Results: No title, rated text incomprehensible, recalled 2.8 units
Title beforehand- easy to understand, recalled 5.8 units
Title afterwards- 2.6 units recall
Significance: relevant schema help passage comprehension rather than
simple acting as a retrieval cue
Bartlett
Schemas play important role in determining how we remember stories
o Memory is affected not only by presented story, also by reader’s store
of relevant prior schematic knowledge
Comprehension depends on top-down processes, triggered by
schemas
Study: present people with stories producing conflict between story and prior
knowledge
Prior knowledge may create distortions, meaning memory inaccurate in
including some schematic knowledge not included
Poorly controlled studies
Vague instructions meaning distortions due to conscious guessing, not
deficient memory
Claimed distortions increased over time when same story was recalled
repeatedly
Failures to obtain supporting evidence
Sulin and Dooling: Hitler study supposed influence of schematic knowledge
in producing memory distortions with time
Three types of error:
1. rationalisation- distortions designed to make recall more rational and in
line with reader’s own cultural expectations
2 ways schematic knowledge can cause rationalisations
a. Schematic knowledge may distort comprehension processes when
reading a story
b. Schematic knowledge may distort retrieval processes
preferred by Barlett, as story recall is reconstructive
process, where story and schema info combined
Tendency for schematic knowledge to produce distortions
in discourse memory
2. Levelling- omitting unfamiliar details from recall
3. Sharpening- selecting certain details for embellishment
Part A
Schemas
Schema- mental framework for organising knowledge- creates a meaningful
structure of related concepts
Slot- materials and the shapes within a schema
Similar to semantic networks except more task-oriented
Concepts and schemas may be viewed at many levels of analysis
Depends on mind of the individual and the context
(Sternberg Et Al.) Schemas have several characteristics ensuring wide flexibility in
their use:
1. Can include other schemas (eg. schema for plants, includes schema for herbs)
2. Encompass typical, general facts, that can vary slightly from one specific
instance to another (eg. schema for bird typically includes flying, not all birds
fly)
3. Can vary in degree of abstraction (eg. happiness is much more abstract than
schema for vegetables)
Can include info about relationships, inc. relationships about:
- Concepts (eg. link between fruit and veg)
- Attributes within concepts (eg. height and weight of a giraffe)
- Attributes in related concepts (eg. softness of a cushion and softness of a
carpet)
- Concepts and particular context (eg. astronauts and outer space)
- Specific concepts and general background knowledge
Schemas can give rise for stereotypes eg. 9.11, create schema for type of
person we believe responsible, means associate certain group of people
with terrorism
Scripts
Script- particular kind of schema containing info about the particular order in which
things occur
Less flexible than schemas
Include default values for the actors, props, setting, sequence of events
expected to occur
o Together composes event overview
Study
Method: Asked to read 18 brief stories
Perform 1 of 2 tasks
1. Recall task- recall as much as possible about each of the stories
2. Recognition task- presented with sentences, asked to rate on a 7-point
scale their confidence that they had seen of the sentences: some from
stories, others weren’t: sentences not from stories, some were relevant
scripts others weren’t
Results: Recall- significant tendency to recall elements not actually in the stories, but
parts of scripts of the stories
Recognition- likelier characterise particular non-story sentences as coming
from the stories, if the non-story sentences were script-relevant than if non-story
sentences were not script relevant
Significance: scripts guide what people recall, recognise, and know
May be involved in ways experts converse with and write for one another:
share a jargon- specialised vocabulary commonly used within a group
Schema Theory: Bartlett
Schemas include scripts (deal with events and consequences of events) and frames-
knowledge structures referring to some aspect of the world
Ghosh and Gilboa: Schemas possess 4 necessary and sufficient features:
, 1. Associative structure- schemas consist of interconnected units
2. Basis in multiple episodes- schemas consist of integrated information
based on several similar events
3. Lack of unit detail- follows from variability events f
4. rom which any given schema is formed
5. Adaptability- schemas change and adapt over time as they are updated in
the light of new info
- Several definitions of schema used by theorists
Importance of Schemas
Contain much info needed to understand what we hear and read
Allow us to form expectations, making world predictable
Can influence story comprehension
o Study (Bransford and Johnson):
Method: gave participants unclear passage, with or without title: if title,
either before or after reading passage
Results: No title, rated text incomprehensible, recalled 2.8 units
Title beforehand- easy to understand, recalled 5.8 units
Title afterwards- 2.6 units recall
Significance: relevant schema help passage comprehension rather than
simple acting as a retrieval cue
Bartlett
Schemas play important role in determining how we remember stories
o Memory is affected not only by presented story, also by reader’s store
of relevant prior schematic knowledge
Comprehension depends on top-down processes, triggered by
schemas
Study: present people with stories producing conflict between story and prior
knowledge
Prior knowledge may create distortions, meaning memory inaccurate in
including some schematic knowledge not included
Poorly controlled studies
Vague instructions meaning distortions due to conscious guessing, not
deficient memory
Claimed distortions increased over time when same story was recalled
repeatedly
Failures to obtain supporting evidence
Sulin and Dooling: Hitler study supposed influence of schematic knowledge
in producing memory distortions with time
Three types of error:
1. rationalisation- distortions designed to make recall more rational and in
line with reader’s own cultural expectations
2 ways schematic knowledge can cause rationalisations
a. Schematic knowledge may distort comprehension processes when
reading a story
b. Schematic knowledge may distort retrieval processes
preferred by Barlett, as story recall is reconstructive
process, where story and schema info combined
Tendency for schematic knowledge to produce distortions
in discourse memory
2. Levelling- omitting unfamiliar details from recall
3. Sharpening- selecting certain details for embellishment
