Week 2.1: Conditioning and Craving
Ch 3: Understanding Addictive Behavior as a
Learned Phenomenon
Introduction
One of the most dominant approaches – to the study and treatment of addictive behavior –
has conceptualized it as a process of learning
- Addictive Behavior – something that is learned – and therefore, can be unlearned
One of the key features of addictive behavior – individuals engaging in addictive behaviors –
seem to continue to do so even if they are experiencing obvious harms
Behaviorist Learning Theory
Behaviorist learning theory – is a useful approach for understanding addictive behavior
- In terms of (1) why it develops – and (2) why it is so hard for people to overcome
Two perspectives on addictive behavior:
(1) Learning Theory – suggest that behavior can be understood by examining the
rewards and punishments that people experience during their lives – in response to
things they do
- Over time – the world we live in manipulates our actions – such that we tend to
engage in behaviors that get us what we want – rewards – and avoid behaviors
that have negative outcomes for us – punishments
(2) Social Learning Theory – offers a more recent perspective on addictive behavior
- It tends to focus mostly on environmental causes of behavior – to include intra-
individual factors
Learning Theory
Operant Conditioning
,Based on the work of Skinner (1938) – operant conditioning is the process by which various
rewards and punishments increase or decrease the likelihood of an individual repeating a
certain action in the future
Rewards
Rewards – or reinforcements – can take two forms:
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement – increases the probability of a behavior – by giving a reward
- The behavior leads to activation of the reward pathways
Operant conditioning – begins with a behavior that is rewarding for the individual in some
way
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement – takes the form of the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
- Rather than the presentation of a positive one
It increases the probability of a behavior – by removing discomfort
Example – in the addictive behavior filed – is that of withdrawal
(1) When an individual who is dependent upon a substance – and decides to quit it – they
will experience withdrawal
- This can manifest as – e.g., nausea, irritability, headaches, disturbed sleep, etc.
The individual may wish to remain abstinent – however the quickest way to remove the
uncomfortable symptoms – is to take the substance again
(1) This removal of a negative state by an action – is what is meant by negative
reinforcement
- And this can also increase the likelihood – that one will engage in this behavior
again in the future
Punishment
Operant conditioning – can involve punishment – this decreases the probability of a behavior
- As we will always attempt to avoid punishments
,The negative consequences of various addictive behaviors – are all examples of punishments
Contiguity
People learn better – when reinforcements or punishments – are contiguous with their actions
- Meaning that they are closely linked in time
Contiguity – can help in understanding why it is that strong punishments – associated with
addictive behaviors – often fail to stop the behavior recurring
The reinforcements – e.g., feeling of relaxation, getting high, alleviation of withdrawal
symptoms – for most addictive behaviors
- Are much more closely linked in time – to the addictive behavior
In comparison – the punishments and negative consequences – e.g., health issues, breakdown
of close relationships, onset of withdrawal symptoms
- Are not so closely linked in time
Routes of Administration
Different routes of administration – will affect how soon one feels the positive effects of
taking a drug
(1) Routes such as injecting or inhaling a drug – are more reinforcing than drugs taken
orally
- Because the behavior – i.e., administering the drug – and the reinforcement – i.e.,
the positive drug effect – are more contiguous
Classical Conditioning
From the work of Pavlov – classical conditioning – also referred to as Pavlovian
conditioning
- A process important in understanding addictive behavior – because it explains a
wide variety of behaviors and responses among individuals who are dependent on
a certain drug or behavior
The basis of classical conditioning – is that humans and animals learn to associate stimuli
that frequently co-occur together – contiguously
, - Irrespective of whether the stimuli are causally linked in any way
As a result – behaviors can occur in both useful – and not-so-useful situations
There are many things associated with addictive behaviors – that can come to be associated
with the actual engagement in the behavior and its effects
- Injecting drug users – will learn to associate the sight of a needle with drug use
Technical Terms – Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning – begins with an unconditioned response (UCR) – i.e., reflex already
elicited by a stimulus, such as salivating– to an unconditioned stimulus (US) – i.e., a
stimulus that can elicit the response – e.g., sight and smell of food
- We must then must find a neutral stimulus (NS) – that does NOT produce the
UCR or response – e.g., the sound of a bell
The NS is repeatedly presented with the US
(1) Once the NS is presented in the absence of the US – and a response – the salivation –
is produced
- A conditioned response (CR) – e.g., salivation – has been produced – to a namely
conditioned stimulus (CS) – e.g., the sound of a bell – i.e., the neutral stimulus
becomes the conditioned stimulus after repeated pairings
Lastly – extinction:
(1) Repeatedly presenting the CS alone – until the CS ceases to elicit a response
- When the CS continually fails to elicit the CR
Conditioned Drug Responses
If a person has been using drugs consistently – for a long period of time – termination of self-
administration can be a long and painful process
(1) During the period of drug use – many cues in the environment – such as people,
places, and even emotional states, etc. – have become associated with drug use – via
the principles of classical conditioning
- As a result – when returning to those environments – drug cues can create (1)
craving – and (2) the urge to want to use the drug
Ch 3: Understanding Addictive Behavior as a
Learned Phenomenon
Introduction
One of the most dominant approaches – to the study and treatment of addictive behavior –
has conceptualized it as a process of learning
- Addictive Behavior – something that is learned – and therefore, can be unlearned
One of the key features of addictive behavior – individuals engaging in addictive behaviors –
seem to continue to do so even if they are experiencing obvious harms
Behaviorist Learning Theory
Behaviorist learning theory – is a useful approach for understanding addictive behavior
- In terms of (1) why it develops – and (2) why it is so hard for people to overcome
Two perspectives on addictive behavior:
(1) Learning Theory – suggest that behavior can be understood by examining the
rewards and punishments that people experience during their lives – in response to
things they do
- Over time – the world we live in manipulates our actions – such that we tend to
engage in behaviors that get us what we want – rewards – and avoid behaviors
that have negative outcomes for us – punishments
(2) Social Learning Theory – offers a more recent perspective on addictive behavior
- It tends to focus mostly on environmental causes of behavior – to include intra-
individual factors
Learning Theory
Operant Conditioning
,Based on the work of Skinner (1938) – operant conditioning is the process by which various
rewards and punishments increase or decrease the likelihood of an individual repeating a
certain action in the future
Rewards
Rewards – or reinforcements – can take two forms:
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement – increases the probability of a behavior – by giving a reward
- The behavior leads to activation of the reward pathways
Operant conditioning – begins with a behavior that is rewarding for the individual in some
way
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement – takes the form of the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
- Rather than the presentation of a positive one
It increases the probability of a behavior – by removing discomfort
Example – in the addictive behavior filed – is that of withdrawal
(1) When an individual who is dependent upon a substance – and decides to quit it – they
will experience withdrawal
- This can manifest as – e.g., nausea, irritability, headaches, disturbed sleep, etc.
The individual may wish to remain abstinent – however the quickest way to remove the
uncomfortable symptoms – is to take the substance again
(1) This removal of a negative state by an action – is what is meant by negative
reinforcement
- And this can also increase the likelihood – that one will engage in this behavior
again in the future
Punishment
Operant conditioning – can involve punishment – this decreases the probability of a behavior
- As we will always attempt to avoid punishments
,The negative consequences of various addictive behaviors – are all examples of punishments
Contiguity
People learn better – when reinforcements or punishments – are contiguous with their actions
- Meaning that they are closely linked in time
Contiguity – can help in understanding why it is that strong punishments – associated with
addictive behaviors – often fail to stop the behavior recurring
The reinforcements – e.g., feeling of relaxation, getting high, alleviation of withdrawal
symptoms – for most addictive behaviors
- Are much more closely linked in time – to the addictive behavior
In comparison – the punishments and negative consequences – e.g., health issues, breakdown
of close relationships, onset of withdrawal symptoms
- Are not so closely linked in time
Routes of Administration
Different routes of administration – will affect how soon one feels the positive effects of
taking a drug
(1) Routes such as injecting or inhaling a drug – are more reinforcing than drugs taken
orally
- Because the behavior – i.e., administering the drug – and the reinforcement – i.e.,
the positive drug effect – are more contiguous
Classical Conditioning
From the work of Pavlov – classical conditioning – also referred to as Pavlovian
conditioning
- A process important in understanding addictive behavior – because it explains a
wide variety of behaviors and responses among individuals who are dependent on
a certain drug or behavior
The basis of classical conditioning – is that humans and animals learn to associate stimuli
that frequently co-occur together – contiguously
, - Irrespective of whether the stimuli are causally linked in any way
As a result – behaviors can occur in both useful – and not-so-useful situations
There are many things associated with addictive behaviors – that can come to be associated
with the actual engagement in the behavior and its effects
- Injecting drug users – will learn to associate the sight of a needle with drug use
Technical Terms – Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning – begins with an unconditioned response (UCR) – i.e., reflex already
elicited by a stimulus, such as salivating– to an unconditioned stimulus (US) – i.e., a
stimulus that can elicit the response – e.g., sight and smell of food
- We must then must find a neutral stimulus (NS) – that does NOT produce the
UCR or response – e.g., the sound of a bell
The NS is repeatedly presented with the US
(1) Once the NS is presented in the absence of the US – and a response – the salivation –
is produced
- A conditioned response (CR) – e.g., salivation – has been produced – to a namely
conditioned stimulus (CS) – e.g., the sound of a bell – i.e., the neutral stimulus
becomes the conditioned stimulus after repeated pairings
Lastly – extinction:
(1) Repeatedly presenting the CS alone – until the CS ceases to elicit a response
- When the CS continually fails to elicit the CR
Conditioned Drug Responses
If a person has been using drugs consistently – for a long period of time – termination of self-
administration can be a long and painful process
(1) During the period of drug use – many cues in the environment – such as people,
places, and even emotional states, etc. – have become associated with drug use – via
the principles of classical conditioning
- As a result – when returning to those environments – drug cues can create (1)
craving – and (2) the urge to want to use the drug
