1
Visible Religious Markers and Hiring Decisions: Employer Stereotypes and Muslim
Applicants in the Dutch Labour Market
Name (Student number), Name (Student number) & Name (Student number)
Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University
Interdisciplinary Social Science
201800009: Migrants and Integration
Teacher
2026
Word count: 3469
, 2
Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................2
Theory, hypotheses and findings..................................................................................................................4
Discussion...................................................................................................................................................13
References..................................................................................................................................................16
Appendix A.................................................................................................................................................22
Introduction
In recent decades, the Netherlands has become more diverse due to migration and
globalisation. While Dutch society emphasises equality, discrimination in the labour market
remains present. Research shows that individuals with a migration background experience
, 3
disadvantages in recruitment processes and workplace participation (Thijssen et al.,
2020; Weichselbaumer, 2019). Within this pattern, Muslims face barriers related not only to
ethnicity but also to religion and the visibility of religious identity.
Discrimination against Muslims refers to unequal treatment based on being Muslim or
perceived as Muslim (College voor de Rechten van de Mens, n.d.). In practice, this is often linked
to visible religious markers, such as Islamic clothing. These visible markers may influence how
employers perceive applicants and evaluate their suitability for a position. During hiring
processes, employers make decisions with limited information, which can lead to the use of
stereotypes (Sachs et al., 2024). These stereotypes may shape perceptions of Muslim applicants
and affect hiring decisions.
Results from studies show that discrimination against Muslims in the labour market is still
an important issue. Muslim women who wear a headscarf receive fewer positive responses to job
applications compared to other women with equal qualities (Blommaert et al., 2024). According
to the Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics, approximately 10.3% of employees reported
experiencing discrimination at work in 2022, with higher rates among individuals with a
migration background (Dirven & Van Thor, 2023).
This issue is socially relevant because unequal access to employment limits economic
opportunities and participation in society (Ensher et al., 2001; Agyare, 2020; Fibbi et al., 2021;
Kovnyi et al., 2024). Employment is an important factor for integration, and when certain groups
face barriers, this can reinforce inequalities within society (Müssig & Okrug, 2025). Repeated
experiences of discrimination may lower trust in institutions and feelings of exclusion among
Muslim communities. Reports suggest that discrimination against Muslims in the
Netherlands remains persistent and becomes more normalised in public discourse and everyday
experiences (De Cuba et al., 2025).
Therefore, this paper addresses the following question: What role do employer
stereotypes regarding visible religious markers play in hiring Muslims in the Dutch labour
market?
Visible Religious Markers and Hiring Decisions: Employer Stereotypes and Muslim
Applicants in the Dutch Labour Market
Name (Student number), Name (Student number) & Name (Student number)
Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University
Interdisciplinary Social Science
201800009: Migrants and Integration
Teacher
2026
Word count: 3469
, 2
Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................2
Theory, hypotheses and findings..................................................................................................................4
Discussion...................................................................................................................................................13
References..................................................................................................................................................16
Appendix A.................................................................................................................................................22
Introduction
In recent decades, the Netherlands has become more diverse due to migration and
globalisation. While Dutch society emphasises equality, discrimination in the labour market
remains present. Research shows that individuals with a migration background experience
, 3
disadvantages in recruitment processes and workplace participation (Thijssen et al.,
2020; Weichselbaumer, 2019). Within this pattern, Muslims face barriers related not only to
ethnicity but also to religion and the visibility of religious identity.
Discrimination against Muslims refers to unequal treatment based on being Muslim or
perceived as Muslim (College voor de Rechten van de Mens, n.d.). In practice, this is often linked
to visible religious markers, such as Islamic clothing. These visible markers may influence how
employers perceive applicants and evaluate their suitability for a position. During hiring
processes, employers make decisions with limited information, which can lead to the use of
stereotypes (Sachs et al., 2024). These stereotypes may shape perceptions of Muslim applicants
and affect hiring decisions.
Results from studies show that discrimination against Muslims in the labour market is still
an important issue. Muslim women who wear a headscarf receive fewer positive responses to job
applications compared to other women with equal qualities (Blommaert et al., 2024). According
to the Dutch Central Bureau of Statistics, approximately 10.3% of employees reported
experiencing discrimination at work in 2022, with higher rates among individuals with a
migration background (Dirven & Van Thor, 2023).
This issue is socially relevant because unequal access to employment limits economic
opportunities and participation in society (Ensher et al., 2001; Agyare, 2020; Fibbi et al., 2021;
Kovnyi et al., 2024). Employment is an important factor for integration, and when certain groups
face barriers, this can reinforce inequalities within society (Müssig & Okrug, 2025). Repeated
experiences of discrimination may lower trust in institutions and feelings of exclusion among
Muslim communities. Reports suggest that discrimination against Muslims in the
Netherlands remains persistent and becomes more normalised in public discourse and everyday
experiences (De Cuba et al., 2025).
Therefore, this paper addresses the following question: What role do employer
stereotypes regarding visible religious markers play in hiring Muslims in the Dutch labour
market?
