The ULTIMATE Human Growth & Development (HGD) CLEP
Study Guide || Error-free Answers 100%.
Discontinuity or Stage Theories (types of theories) correct answers -Development progresses
through a series of stages
-Each stage involves a specific task
-Once task is achieved, individual moves to next stage
-Changes are qualitative
Continuity Theory (type of theory) correct answers -Development/change is a matter of small
steps
-Change is NOT qualitative
Universality theorists believe... correct answers there are universals to development that occur
across all cultures/time-periods
Context-specific theorists believe... correct answers context (cultural/social) influences
development
Cognitive-Developmental Theory correct answers -Coined by Jean Piaget
-Argues that cognitive abilities develop as one matures physiologically
-It is a stage theory (4-stages)
~Sensorimotor stage (0-2yo)
~Preoperational stage (2-7yo)
~Concrete operations (7-12yo)
~Formal operations (12-15yo)
Stage 1 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Sensorimotor (0-2yo)
-Characterized by child learning the difference between themselves and their environment
Stage 2 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Preoperational (2-7yo)
-Characterized by: egocentrism, rigid thought, semi-logical reasoning, limited social cognition
Stage 3 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Concrete Operations (7-12yo)
,-Characterized by: individual can consider other viewpoints, can perform transformations
(reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, conservation), can group items into categories, make
inferences about reality, inductive reasoning (generalizing), increased quantitative skills
Stage 4 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Formal Operations (12-15yo)
-Characterized by: higher ordered and critical thinking, logical, abstract, hypothetical
capabilities, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, able to anticipate verbal cues, can perform
an experiment (hypothesis, isolate variables, cause-and-effect)
Jean Piaget and "Adaptation" (learning) correct answers Individual encounters a new stimulus ->
disequilibrium of individual -> accommodation (adjusting prior knowledge) -> assimilation
(putting new and old information together) -> understanding that which is new... (learning...)
Learning Theorists believe... correct answers -that environment influences learning (nurture), and
developmental change is the product of learning
-ie. Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura
Classical Conditioning correct answers -Ivan Pavlov
-"Learning takes place when reflexive behavior (salivating) comes under control of a novel
stimulus (bell) in the environment"
Unconditioned Stimulus?
Unconditioned Response?
Conditioned Stimulus?
Conditioned Response? correct answers -stimulus that automatically elicits a response (steak)
-automatic response to UCS (salivating)
-paired with UCS to generate response (steak & bell)
-response that results from CS (salivating at bell)
IRT Classical Conditioning...
"Generalization"?
"Discrimination"?
"Extinction"? correct answers -CR is elicited by stimuli similar to CS (alike to bell)
-CR is only elicited by CS (bell)
-Unlearning of the CR
Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses correct answers -John Watson
,-Through experience we learn to associate new environmental stimuli with reflexive emotional
responses
-Conditioned fear into Little Albert using a loud noise (UCS) and a rate (CS); later, little albert
would be fearful of just rat...
Operant Conditioning correct answers -B.F. Skinner
-Learning is controlled by stimuli and our interaction with it, but our behavior is influenced by
consequences (reward, punishment)
-Positive reinforcement = rewarding behavior (candy)
-Negative reinforcement = removing an undesirable consequence to promote good behavior
(letting a kid out of timeout if they agree to not be disruptive)
Social Cognitive Theory correct answers -Albert Bandura
-Changes in behavior don't result from just conditioning, but also from observing and modeling
Psychodynamic Theorists believe what about personality? correct answers -it is unconscious and
shaped by early experiences
Freud's Theory of Personality correct answers -Sigmund Freud
-Three main points:
~1) early experiences determine adult personality
~2) unconscious mental processes guide behavior
~3) conflict causes most behavior
-Each adult personality consists of:
~id - pleasure-oriented, animalistic
~ego - deals with reality, executive branch
~superego - concerned with morality
-Behavior is outcome of conflict between id, ego, and superego
-Most of our personality is bottom of iceberg (unconscious)
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development Theory correct answers -Development is centered
around an erogenous zone that changes with age
-Frustrations or under-/over-indulgence in any one zone can result in fixation, which affects
personality/behavior
, -Stage 1 (0-1yo) - oral
-Stage 2 (1-3yo) - anus
-Stage 3 (3-6yo) - genitals
-Stage 4 (6-12yo) - latency (none)
-Stage 5 (puberty+) - genitals
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development correct answers -Personality develops over
the entire lifespan as a result of social-emotional tasks
-In Childhood
~Trust vs mistrust (birth-1yo)
~Autonomy vs shame & doubt (1-3yo)
~Initiative vs guilt (3-6yo)
~Industry vs inferiority (6-11yo)
-In Adolescence
~Identity vs role confusion
-In Young Adulthood
~Intimacy vs isolation
-In Adulthood
~Generativity vs stagnation
-In Late Adulthood
~Ego integrity vs despair
Socio-Cultural Theorists believe... correct answers Environment (society & culture) influence
child, and child influences environment
Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development correct answers -Lev Vygotsky
-There are social influences on development
-Much of cognitive development due to interactions
-Older children & adults = "scaffolding"
-Lowest level of performance occurs when child works alone, highest when with knowledgeable
elder
Study Guide || Error-free Answers 100%.
Discontinuity or Stage Theories (types of theories) correct answers -Development progresses
through a series of stages
-Each stage involves a specific task
-Once task is achieved, individual moves to next stage
-Changes are qualitative
Continuity Theory (type of theory) correct answers -Development/change is a matter of small
steps
-Change is NOT qualitative
Universality theorists believe... correct answers there are universals to development that occur
across all cultures/time-periods
Context-specific theorists believe... correct answers context (cultural/social) influences
development
Cognitive-Developmental Theory correct answers -Coined by Jean Piaget
-Argues that cognitive abilities develop as one matures physiologically
-It is a stage theory (4-stages)
~Sensorimotor stage (0-2yo)
~Preoperational stage (2-7yo)
~Concrete operations (7-12yo)
~Formal operations (12-15yo)
Stage 1 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Sensorimotor (0-2yo)
-Characterized by child learning the difference between themselves and their environment
Stage 2 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Preoperational (2-7yo)
-Characterized by: egocentrism, rigid thought, semi-logical reasoning, limited social cognition
Stage 3 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Concrete Operations (7-12yo)
,-Characterized by: individual can consider other viewpoints, can perform transformations
(reversibility, inversion, reciprocity, conservation), can group items into categories, make
inferences about reality, inductive reasoning (generalizing), increased quantitative skills
Stage 4 of Cognitive-Developmental Theory? correct answers -Formal Operations (12-15yo)
-Characterized by: higher ordered and critical thinking, logical, abstract, hypothetical
capabilities, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, able to anticipate verbal cues, can perform
an experiment (hypothesis, isolate variables, cause-and-effect)
Jean Piaget and "Adaptation" (learning) correct answers Individual encounters a new stimulus ->
disequilibrium of individual -> accommodation (adjusting prior knowledge) -> assimilation
(putting new and old information together) -> understanding that which is new... (learning...)
Learning Theorists believe... correct answers -that environment influences learning (nurture), and
developmental change is the product of learning
-ie. Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura
Classical Conditioning correct answers -Ivan Pavlov
-"Learning takes place when reflexive behavior (salivating) comes under control of a novel
stimulus (bell) in the environment"
Unconditioned Stimulus?
Unconditioned Response?
Conditioned Stimulus?
Conditioned Response? correct answers -stimulus that automatically elicits a response (steak)
-automatic response to UCS (salivating)
-paired with UCS to generate response (steak & bell)
-response that results from CS (salivating at bell)
IRT Classical Conditioning...
"Generalization"?
"Discrimination"?
"Extinction"? correct answers -CR is elicited by stimuli similar to CS (alike to bell)
-CR is only elicited by CS (bell)
-Unlearning of the CR
Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses correct answers -John Watson
,-Through experience we learn to associate new environmental stimuli with reflexive emotional
responses
-Conditioned fear into Little Albert using a loud noise (UCS) and a rate (CS); later, little albert
would be fearful of just rat...
Operant Conditioning correct answers -B.F. Skinner
-Learning is controlled by stimuli and our interaction with it, but our behavior is influenced by
consequences (reward, punishment)
-Positive reinforcement = rewarding behavior (candy)
-Negative reinforcement = removing an undesirable consequence to promote good behavior
(letting a kid out of timeout if they agree to not be disruptive)
Social Cognitive Theory correct answers -Albert Bandura
-Changes in behavior don't result from just conditioning, but also from observing and modeling
Psychodynamic Theorists believe what about personality? correct answers -it is unconscious and
shaped by early experiences
Freud's Theory of Personality correct answers -Sigmund Freud
-Three main points:
~1) early experiences determine adult personality
~2) unconscious mental processes guide behavior
~3) conflict causes most behavior
-Each adult personality consists of:
~id - pleasure-oriented, animalistic
~ego - deals with reality, executive branch
~superego - concerned with morality
-Behavior is outcome of conflict between id, ego, and superego
-Most of our personality is bottom of iceberg (unconscious)
Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development Theory correct answers -Development is centered
around an erogenous zone that changes with age
-Frustrations or under-/over-indulgence in any one zone can result in fixation, which affects
personality/behavior
, -Stage 1 (0-1yo) - oral
-Stage 2 (1-3yo) - anus
-Stage 3 (3-6yo) - genitals
-Stage 4 (6-12yo) - latency (none)
-Stage 5 (puberty+) - genitals
Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development correct answers -Personality develops over
the entire lifespan as a result of social-emotional tasks
-In Childhood
~Trust vs mistrust (birth-1yo)
~Autonomy vs shame & doubt (1-3yo)
~Initiative vs guilt (3-6yo)
~Industry vs inferiority (6-11yo)
-In Adolescence
~Identity vs role confusion
-In Young Adulthood
~Intimacy vs isolation
-In Adulthood
~Generativity vs stagnation
-In Late Adulthood
~Ego integrity vs despair
Socio-Cultural Theorists believe... correct answers Environment (society & culture) influence
child, and child influences environment
Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development correct answers -Lev Vygotsky
-There are social influences on development
-Much of cognitive development due to interactions
-Older children & adults = "scaffolding"
-Lowest level of performance occurs when child works alone, highest when with knowledgeable
elder
