Lecture 1
Learning and memory
Dia 4
Short term memory: learning is not necessarily going on
Retention: active process, brain is always at work
Dia 5
Summary of everything
LTM: everything you can still remember after 5 minutes (really broad range).
Dia 9
Spacing effect -> dividing your time over the next three weeks
Single most effective learning strategy -> retrieval practice effect. Generation (asking good
questions is a very good way to learn). Deeper forms of processing -> better retention (level
of processing effect).
State dependent learning -> no alcohol during learning.
Context effects are probably weak (learning at home vs at school etc)
Aristotle 384-322 BC
There was not really a concept of memory by then… But associations between stimuli
(thoughts etc).
80 BC: Rhetorica ad Herennium (how to speak elequantly/well/effectively)
- Self help books. Method of loci.
- There was also a section of memory: how to memorize your speech (better than
looking at notes all the time)
- different parts are put in different locations in the mind (ofzo) -> visualize the things
you want to say -> method of loci (this method is still used nowadays, also popular in
the medieval times).
Darwin 1809-1882
He put memory in the context of evolution. We respond to our environment in order to
survive. human memory has a certain forgetting curve, if time passes less need to remember
certain things -> make room for new memories.
-Memory of the bee. Bee -> small beast with a lot of brain cells (but less than humans ofc) ->
bees can do a lot of stuff, find honey communicate, quite complex etc -> so they need
memory to know where the honey is -> complex memory system -> many times of short/long
term memory and sort of a middle term memory (somewhere in between) -> those are
chemically connected etc.
No need to know all this.
Dia 46: some steps are skipped (van kort lang lang etc)
,Herman Ebbinghaus
-Founder of modern psychology
-Forgetting curve
Three months -> you have to start all over again ->
Dit stukje terugluisteren
Meaningless syllables ->
words that had a meaning like sex were removed.
He put 13 meaningless syllables together.
n=1 study…
It was never replicated.
5 years ago this was replicated: the curve was found indeed!
Dia 49
baseline -> immediate recall (100%)
1 day-> effect of sleep (consolidating effect)
1 day recall: doesn’t follow the curve due to sleep.
Jost
- Jost’s Law. If two memory traces have equal retrieval probability, the older one will
be a) forgotten more slowly than the younger one b) benefit more from additional
learning.
Francis Bartlett
-Focus on existing knowledge
-not just passive storage but it goes through a process that changes. Memory changes, input
mixed with background knowledge -> it changes.
Known info: we beschrijven eerder dat we ‘t plaatje links zagen dan rest (we make it whole
(background knowledge, we know what a heart looks like).
William James
- tip-of the tongue phenomenon (hoe heet acteur ook alweer, even later weet je ‘t
weer)
- distinguish between primary and secondary memory -> after so many seconds
(secondary) and before it’s primary. Current knowledge: we know there’s a mixture
between short and long term
Freud
- Repression as a mechanism
- Forgetting is mainly caused by repression. Emotional things are put away. There’s
rare evidence for this.. So he’s not wrong, for special cases.
- Slip of the tongue
- Unconscious processing
,Lasley (1925): in search for the engram
Where in the brain are memories stored?
Teaching mice to run a maze until they can do it well (finding cheese). Number of errors is
one of the measures, or how fast the mouse finds the cheese. Cutting out a piece of cortex
and then see if the mouse can still remember how to do it. Location memory. He found that
the memory of the maze is not in any particular place but distributed in the cortex -> so the
more cortex is removed, the worse the performance is.
the larger the brain -> the more specialization! (mice have small brains..)
Humans -> we have a PPA, if you cut that out we will lose a lot of location/place memories,
the same goes for faces.
Consistent memory, recent is often lost, old time memory still maintained -> Ribot.
Donald Hebb
-Hebbian learning (neural networks)
-Cells that wire together fire together
neurons bound due to learning (memory) -> form an assembly.
Behaviorism
-Pavlov
-Classical conditioning
-Important in memory.
-Important in marketing
-Watson
-Skinner -> operant conditioning (reward, laws, reinforcement randomly works best)
-Little Albert -> fear conditioning
Computer (Turing)
Emerging computer science
Mathematical theory of communication -> a ‘bit’ of information.
Computer memory
Random access memory (vanishes when you turn off the computer) and remains when you
turn it on when saved. Ram vs hard disk = STM vs LTM.
Memory now viewed as carrier of information that is manipulated during cognition.
Cognitive psychology
Millers
-The magical number 7 (plus/minus 2)
Broadbent’s information model.
Idea of a filter. Different systems. Many different functions derived from elektronics.
Atkinson and Shiffrin Model
, Baddeley and Hitch Model
model is fine but incomplete.
-> super famous.
-> dominant model in STM.
With visuospatial sketchpad epsidodic buffer etc.
VERPLAATSEN NAAR LECTURE 2
Tulving
Distinguish between experience and
dit kleine stukje terugluisteren.
Procedural: control a bike etc.
Dia 65
Different types of memory.
Part 2
Neurobiology of memory
dia 2
There are very specific locations
-> whole network. Located throughout whole brain, one thing can trigger the whole network
(so not stored in one particular location)
Neurons are simple elements. You can trigger them -> they will signal axon shit blabla
Networks can evolve simpy by instructing, learning.
Network: how you park your car, driving backwards doesnt succeed (network change etc)
Image: say cat
Image: say dog
Simple rules: adjust it’s own connections and it gets better. Image never seen before -> new
image. etc. Neural networks.
Mechanisms of how learning happens in the brain
-> elements
concentrations shift around
terugluisteren
Long term potentiation
Connection strengthens between two neurons.
There are many type of receptors, duh.
Learning and memory
Dia 4
Short term memory: learning is not necessarily going on
Retention: active process, brain is always at work
Dia 5
Summary of everything
LTM: everything you can still remember after 5 minutes (really broad range).
Dia 9
Spacing effect -> dividing your time over the next three weeks
Single most effective learning strategy -> retrieval practice effect. Generation (asking good
questions is a very good way to learn). Deeper forms of processing -> better retention (level
of processing effect).
State dependent learning -> no alcohol during learning.
Context effects are probably weak (learning at home vs at school etc)
Aristotle 384-322 BC
There was not really a concept of memory by then… But associations between stimuli
(thoughts etc).
80 BC: Rhetorica ad Herennium (how to speak elequantly/well/effectively)
- Self help books. Method of loci.
- There was also a section of memory: how to memorize your speech (better than
looking at notes all the time)
- different parts are put in different locations in the mind (ofzo) -> visualize the things
you want to say -> method of loci (this method is still used nowadays, also popular in
the medieval times).
Darwin 1809-1882
He put memory in the context of evolution. We respond to our environment in order to
survive. human memory has a certain forgetting curve, if time passes less need to remember
certain things -> make room for new memories.
-Memory of the bee. Bee -> small beast with a lot of brain cells (but less than humans ofc) ->
bees can do a lot of stuff, find honey communicate, quite complex etc -> so they need
memory to know where the honey is -> complex memory system -> many times of short/long
term memory and sort of a middle term memory (somewhere in between) -> those are
chemically connected etc.
No need to know all this.
Dia 46: some steps are skipped (van kort lang lang etc)
,Herman Ebbinghaus
-Founder of modern psychology
-Forgetting curve
Three months -> you have to start all over again ->
Dit stukje terugluisteren
Meaningless syllables ->
words that had a meaning like sex were removed.
He put 13 meaningless syllables together.
n=1 study…
It was never replicated.
5 years ago this was replicated: the curve was found indeed!
Dia 49
baseline -> immediate recall (100%)
1 day-> effect of sleep (consolidating effect)
1 day recall: doesn’t follow the curve due to sleep.
Jost
- Jost’s Law. If two memory traces have equal retrieval probability, the older one will
be a) forgotten more slowly than the younger one b) benefit more from additional
learning.
Francis Bartlett
-Focus on existing knowledge
-not just passive storage but it goes through a process that changes. Memory changes, input
mixed with background knowledge -> it changes.
Known info: we beschrijven eerder dat we ‘t plaatje links zagen dan rest (we make it whole
(background knowledge, we know what a heart looks like).
William James
- tip-of the tongue phenomenon (hoe heet acteur ook alweer, even later weet je ‘t
weer)
- distinguish between primary and secondary memory -> after so many seconds
(secondary) and before it’s primary. Current knowledge: we know there’s a mixture
between short and long term
Freud
- Repression as a mechanism
- Forgetting is mainly caused by repression. Emotional things are put away. There’s
rare evidence for this.. So he’s not wrong, for special cases.
- Slip of the tongue
- Unconscious processing
,Lasley (1925): in search for the engram
Where in the brain are memories stored?
Teaching mice to run a maze until they can do it well (finding cheese). Number of errors is
one of the measures, or how fast the mouse finds the cheese. Cutting out a piece of cortex
and then see if the mouse can still remember how to do it. Location memory. He found that
the memory of the maze is not in any particular place but distributed in the cortex -> so the
more cortex is removed, the worse the performance is.
the larger the brain -> the more specialization! (mice have small brains..)
Humans -> we have a PPA, if you cut that out we will lose a lot of location/place memories,
the same goes for faces.
Consistent memory, recent is often lost, old time memory still maintained -> Ribot.
Donald Hebb
-Hebbian learning (neural networks)
-Cells that wire together fire together
neurons bound due to learning (memory) -> form an assembly.
Behaviorism
-Pavlov
-Classical conditioning
-Important in memory.
-Important in marketing
-Watson
-Skinner -> operant conditioning (reward, laws, reinforcement randomly works best)
-Little Albert -> fear conditioning
Computer (Turing)
Emerging computer science
Mathematical theory of communication -> a ‘bit’ of information.
Computer memory
Random access memory (vanishes when you turn off the computer) and remains when you
turn it on when saved. Ram vs hard disk = STM vs LTM.
Memory now viewed as carrier of information that is manipulated during cognition.
Cognitive psychology
Millers
-The magical number 7 (plus/minus 2)
Broadbent’s information model.
Idea of a filter. Different systems. Many different functions derived from elektronics.
Atkinson and Shiffrin Model
, Baddeley and Hitch Model
model is fine but incomplete.
-> super famous.
-> dominant model in STM.
With visuospatial sketchpad epsidodic buffer etc.
VERPLAATSEN NAAR LECTURE 2
Tulving
Distinguish between experience and
dit kleine stukje terugluisteren.
Procedural: control a bike etc.
Dia 65
Different types of memory.
Part 2
Neurobiology of memory
dia 2
There are very specific locations
-> whole network. Located throughout whole brain, one thing can trigger the whole network
(so not stored in one particular location)
Neurons are simple elements. You can trigger them -> they will signal axon shit blabla
Networks can evolve simpy by instructing, learning.
Network: how you park your car, driving backwards doesnt succeed (network change etc)
Image: say cat
Image: say dog
Simple rules: adjust it’s own connections and it gets better. Image never seen before -> new
image. etc. Neural networks.
Mechanisms of how learning happens in the brain
-> elements
concentrations shift around
terugluisteren
Long term potentiation
Connection strengthens between two neurons.
There are many type of receptors, duh.
