Cognition & development
Book: Cognition By Mark H. & How Children develop by Robert Siegler.
Inhoud
Chapter 16 (chapter 9 book)............................................................................................................................1
Lecture notes..............................................................................................................................................1
Key terms & Definitions...............................................................................................................................3
Chapter 17 (Chapter 11 book).........................................................................................................................5
Lecture notes:.............................................................................................................................................5
Key terms & Definitions...............................................................................................................................7
Chapter 18 ( chapter 12 book).........................................................................................................................8
Lecture notes:.............................................................................................................................................8
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................10
Chapter 19 (chapter 13 book)........................................................................................................................11
Lecture notes:...........................................................................................................................................11
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................13
Chapter 4 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................14
Lecture notes............................................................................................................................................14
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................17
Chapter 5 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................19
Lecture notes............................................................................................................................................19
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................20
Chapter 6 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................21
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................23
Chapter 7 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................24
Lecture notes............................................................................................................................................24
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................26
Chapter 16 (chapter 9 book)
Lecture notes
Language: a shared symbolic system for communication.
Hockett proposed 13 linguistic universals that are common to all known languages.
Six universals:
Semanticity
Arbitrariness
Flexibility of Symbols: dog, hund, hond, chien, cane, šuo, pies, perro, ci
Displacement (in time)
Productivity
Animal Communication
Beyond arbitrariness, no animal communication system exhibits characteristics that qualify it as a language. In
human cultures, genuine language is the rule, with no exceptions.
Sapir-Whorf or the Linguistic relativity (L-R) Hypothesis
,The language you know shapes the way you think and perceive
events in the world around you. Dani have only two color terms,
one for light one for dark. Their perception is much more specific
than that > no support for the LR hypothesis
Cultural differences in directness
An American: “The door is open”
Japanese: “It’s cold outside”
Dutch: “Could you close that door?
Levels of Analysis
Grammar: A complete set of rules that will generate or produce all acceptable utterances and no ill-formed
ones.
Grammar operates at three levels:
Phonology (sounds of language)
Phonemes: the basic sounds of a language
Syntax (word order)
Semantics (accessing & combining word meanings into sensible, meaningful
wholes)
Phonemes (English has ~ 46 phonemes.)
Glucksberg and Danks
Consonants differ on three dimensions.
Place of articulation
Manner of articulation
Voicing
Vowels differ on two dimensions.
Placement in the mouth
Tongue position in the mouth
Categorical perception: within certain boundaries, sounds are perceived as
constant (Liberman et al., 1957).
Speech Perception and Context
Problem of Invariance: Spoken sounds are not invariant, but change
depending on what sounds precede and follow in a word.
Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two or more
phonemes.
The invariance problem: The same phoneme is physically different… and a
different phoneme is physically the same.
The coarticulation effect: every phoneme is affected by preceding and
subsequent phonemes. Percentage of Strings Shadowed
Embodiment in Speech Perception Correctly
Motor theory of speech perception: Hearing is helped by unconsciously figuring
out how those sounds are produced. Brain areas active during speech production are also active during speech
perception > mirror neuron idea (close relation perception & action). Seeing someone talking helps speech
comprehension.
Syntax: the arrangement of words to show their relationship to one another; sentence structure Word order is
important to convey different ideas.( “The boy hit the girl” versus “The girl hit the boy.”) Phrase order conveys the
proper relation of larger idea units. Matching of noun and verb number.
Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar
Phrase Structure Grammar: accounts for the constituents of the sentence, the word groupings and phrases that
make up the whole utterance, and the relationships among those constituents
Transformational Grammar
Deep structure An abstract representation of the sentence
Surface structure The actual form of a sentence; the literal string of words or sounds
Parse When we divide the sentence into phrases or groupings
Transformational Rules
, 1. Convert the deep structure into a surface structure (production) and vice versa (comprehension).
2. Psychology became dissatisfied with this linguistically motivated approach.
3. The proposal did not deal satisfactorily with meaning
The cognitive role of syntax
Syntax helps listeners to extract meaning and speakers to convey it. People generally use only a limited amount
of syntactical frames. Phrases that contain more accessible information tend to occur earlier in sentences,
newer concepts come later. When syntactic complexity increases demands on working memory increases.
Lexical and Semantic Factors
Mental Lexicon: The mental dictionary of words and their meanings
Morphemes: The smallest units of language that have meaning
Polysemy: One word can have multiple meanings. How many meanings can you think of for the word “point”?
People initially activate multiple meanings in memory and then narrow down to a single, appropriate one.
Case Grammar: An approach in which the meaning of a sentence is
determined by analyzing the semantic cases played by different words
Semantic Cases:The roles played by the content words in sentences
Interaction of Syntax and Semantics
Semantic Focus: The concepts emphasized in a sentence
Different foci
I’m going downtown with my sister at four o’clock.
It’s at four o’clock that I’m going downtown with my sister.
It’s my sister with whom I’m going downtown at four o’clock
Semantic Knowledge Can Overpower Syntax: If people hear a sentence such
as “John went into the store and CBTgot off the bus,” it is later remembered that
the getting off the bus occurred before going into the store.
Evidence for Semantic Grammar Approaches
Garden Path Sentence: A sentence in which there is an early
misinterpretation, requiring reinterpretation.
Aphasia: disruption of language caused by a brain-related disorder
Broca’s aphasia: Severe difficulties in producing speech.
Wernicke’s aphasia: Comprehension is impaired—as are repetition,
naming, reading, and writing—syntactic aspects of speech are preserved
Conduction aphasia: People understand and produce speech normally but
are unable to repeat what they just heard, related to lesion of arcuate
fasciculus (path between Broca & Wernicke)
Key terms & Definitions
Term Definition
The scientific study of language and its structure, including phonetics, morphology,
Linguistics
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
The study of how language is acquired, produced, comprehended, and used in the
Psycholinguistics
mind and brain.
Language A system of communication using sounds or symbols to convey meaning.
Linguistic Universals Features or characteristics that are common to all human languages.
The property of language that allows words to represent objects, actions, ideas, and
Semanticity
concepts.
Arbitrariness The lack of inherent connection between linguistic signs and their meanings.
Flexibility The ability of language users to create new words and change word meanings.
Naming The process of assigning words to objects, concepts, or ideas.
The ability of language to refer to things that are not immediately present in time or
Displacement
space.
Productivity The capacity of language to generate an infinite number of new sentences.
Animal Communication The ways in which animals convey information, typically lacking the complexity of
, Term Definition
human language.
The different stages of linguistic study, including phonology, morphology, syntax,
Levels of Language Analysis
semantics, and pragmatics.
The set of structural rules governing the composition of sentences, phrases, and
Grammar
words in a language.
Competence A speaker’s implicit knowledge of linguistic rules.
Performance The actual use of language in real situations.
Dysfluencies Interruptions in the flow of speech, such as pauses, hesitations, or repetitions.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis The theory that language shapes thought and perception.
Linguistic Relativity The idea that language influences cognition and perception of reality.
Phonology The study of the sound system of a language.
Phonemes The smallest units of sound that can change meaning in a language.
The tendency to perceive phonemes as distinct categories rather than a continuum
Categorical Perception
of sounds.
Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language.
Phonemic Competence A speaker’s knowledge of permissible phoneme combinations in their language.
Problem of Invariance The challenge of recognizing phonemes despite variations in pronunciation.
Coarticulation The influence of surrounding sounds on the pronunciation of phonemes.
Contextual Effects The impact of surrounding linguistic or situational context on language perception.
Embodiment in Speech The theory that speech perception is influenced by bodily experience and motor
Perception processes.
The hypothesis that speech perception involves the same neural mechanisms as
Motor Theory
speech production.
Spectograph A tool used to visually represent the frequency and intensity of sounds over time.
Syntax The rules governing the structure of sentences in a language.
Phrase Structure Grammar A theory that explains sentence structure in terms of hierarchical units.
Deep structure represents the underlying meaning of a sentence, while surface
Deep vs. Surface Structure
structure is the actual word order.
Parsing Sentences The process of analyzing the syntactic structure of a sentence.
Rules that convert deep structures into surface structures in Transformational
Transformational Rules
Grammar.
A linguistic theory that describes language in terms of transformations from deep to
Transformational Grammar
surface structure.
Cognitive Role of Syntax The role that sentence structure plays in shaping thought and comprehension.
A principle stating that sentences are structured to present known information
Given-New Strategy
before introducing new information.
A model of speech production that outlines different stages of language
Fromkin’s Model
processing.
The mental store of words and their meanings, pronunciations, and grammatical
Mental Lexicon
properties.
Lexical Representation How words and their features are stored in memory.
Polysemy The phenomenon of a single word having multiple related meanings.
Bilingualism The ability to speak and understand two languages.
Case Grammar A theory that focuses on the roles that words play in sentences.
Semantic Cases The roles that words play in conveying meaning in sentences (e.g., agent, patient).
Conceptual Semantics The study of how meaning is structured in the mind.
Semantic Grammar A grammar framework focused on meaning rather than syntax.
Garden Path Sentences Sentences that lead the reader to an incorrect interpretation before clarification.
Book: Cognition By Mark H. & How Children develop by Robert Siegler.
Inhoud
Chapter 16 (chapter 9 book)............................................................................................................................1
Lecture notes..............................................................................................................................................1
Key terms & Definitions...............................................................................................................................3
Chapter 17 (Chapter 11 book).........................................................................................................................5
Lecture notes:.............................................................................................................................................5
Key terms & Definitions...............................................................................................................................7
Chapter 18 ( chapter 12 book).........................................................................................................................8
Lecture notes:.............................................................................................................................................8
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................10
Chapter 19 (chapter 13 book)........................................................................................................................11
Lecture notes:...........................................................................................................................................11
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................13
Chapter 4 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................14
Lecture notes............................................................................................................................................14
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................17
Chapter 5 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................19
Lecture notes............................................................................................................................................19
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................20
Chapter 6 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................21
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................23
Chapter 7 (Developmental Psy).....................................................................................................................24
Lecture notes............................................................................................................................................24
Key terms & Definitions..............................................................................................................................26
Chapter 16 (chapter 9 book)
Lecture notes
Language: a shared symbolic system for communication.
Hockett proposed 13 linguistic universals that are common to all known languages.
Six universals:
Semanticity
Arbitrariness
Flexibility of Symbols: dog, hund, hond, chien, cane, šuo, pies, perro, ci
Displacement (in time)
Productivity
Animal Communication
Beyond arbitrariness, no animal communication system exhibits characteristics that qualify it as a language. In
human cultures, genuine language is the rule, with no exceptions.
Sapir-Whorf or the Linguistic relativity (L-R) Hypothesis
,The language you know shapes the way you think and perceive
events in the world around you. Dani have only two color terms,
one for light one for dark. Their perception is much more specific
than that > no support for the LR hypothesis
Cultural differences in directness
An American: “The door is open”
Japanese: “It’s cold outside”
Dutch: “Could you close that door?
Levels of Analysis
Grammar: A complete set of rules that will generate or produce all acceptable utterances and no ill-formed
ones.
Grammar operates at three levels:
Phonology (sounds of language)
Phonemes: the basic sounds of a language
Syntax (word order)
Semantics (accessing & combining word meanings into sensible, meaningful
wholes)
Phonemes (English has ~ 46 phonemes.)
Glucksberg and Danks
Consonants differ on three dimensions.
Place of articulation
Manner of articulation
Voicing
Vowels differ on two dimensions.
Placement in the mouth
Tongue position in the mouth
Categorical perception: within certain boundaries, sounds are perceived as
constant (Liberman et al., 1957).
Speech Perception and Context
Problem of Invariance: Spoken sounds are not invariant, but change
depending on what sounds precede and follow in a word.
Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two or more
phonemes.
The invariance problem: The same phoneme is physically different… and a
different phoneme is physically the same.
The coarticulation effect: every phoneme is affected by preceding and
subsequent phonemes. Percentage of Strings Shadowed
Embodiment in Speech Perception Correctly
Motor theory of speech perception: Hearing is helped by unconsciously figuring
out how those sounds are produced. Brain areas active during speech production are also active during speech
perception > mirror neuron idea (close relation perception & action). Seeing someone talking helps speech
comprehension.
Syntax: the arrangement of words to show their relationship to one another; sentence structure Word order is
important to convey different ideas.( “The boy hit the girl” versus “The girl hit the boy.”) Phrase order conveys the
proper relation of larger idea units. Matching of noun and verb number.
Chomsky’s Transformational Grammar
Phrase Structure Grammar: accounts for the constituents of the sentence, the word groupings and phrases that
make up the whole utterance, and the relationships among those constituents
Transformational Grammar
Deep structure An abstract representation of the sentence
Surface structure The actual form of a sentence; the literal string of words or sounds
Parse When we divide the sentence into phrases or groupings
Transformational Rules
, 1. Convert the deep structure into a surface structure (production) and vice versa (comprehension).
2. Psychology became dissatisfied with this linguistically motivated approach.
3. The proposal did not deal satisfactorily with meaning
The cognitive role of syntax
Syntax helps listeners to extract meaning and speakers to convey it. People generally use only a limited amount
of syntactical frames. Phrases that contain more accessible information tend to occur earlier in sentences,
newer concepts come later. When syntactic complexity increases demands on working memory increases.
Lexical and Semantic Factors
Mental Lexicon: The mental dictionary of words and their meanings
Morphemes: The smallest units of language that have meaning
Polysemy: One word can have multiple meanings. How many meanings can you think of for the word “point”?
People initially activate multiple meanings in memory and then narrow down to a single, appropriate one.
Case Grammar: An approach in which the meaning of a sentence is
determined by analyzing the semantic cases played by different words
Semantic Cases:The roles played by the content words in sentences
Interaction of Syntax and Semantics
Semantic Focus: The concepts emphasized in a sentence
Different foci
I’m going downtown with my sister at four o’clock.
It’s at four o’clock that I’m going downtown with my sister.
It’s my sister with whom I’m going downtown at four o’clock
Semantic Knowledge Can Overpower Syntax: If people hear a sentence such
as “John went into the store and CBTgot off the bus,” it is later remembered that
the getting off the bus occurred before going into the store.
Evidence for Semantic Grammar Approaches
Garden Path Sentence: A sentence in which there is an early
misinterpretation, requiring reinterpretation.
Aphasia: disruption of language caused by a brain-related disorder
Broca’s aphasia: Severe difficulties in producing speech.
Wernicke’s aphasia: Comprehension is impaired—as are repetition,
naming, reading, and writing—syntactic aspects of speech are preserved
Conduction aphasia: People understand and produce speech normally but
are unable to repeat what they just heard, related to lesion of arcuate
fasciculus (path between Broca & Wernicke)
Key terms & Definitions
Term Definition
The scientific study of language and its structure, including phonetics, morphology,
Linguistics
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
The study of how language is acquired, produced, comprehended, and used in the
Psycholinguistics
mind and brain.
Language A system of communication using sounds or symbols to convey meaning.
Linguistic Universals Features or characteristics that are common to all human languages.
The property of language that allows words to represent objects, actions, ideas, and
Semanticity
concepts.
Arbitrariness The lack of inherent connection between linguistic signs and their meanings.
Flexibility The ability of language users to create new words and change word meanings.
Naming The process of assigning words to objects, concepts, or ideas.
The ability of language to refer to things that are not immediately present in time or
Displacement
space.
Productivity The capacity of language to generate an infinite number of new sentences.
Animal Communication The ways in which animals convey information, typically lacking the complexity of
, Term Definition
human language.
The different stages of linguistic study, including phonology, morphology, syntax,
Levels of Language Analysis
semantics, and pragmatics.
The set of structural rules governing the composition of sentences, phrases, and
Grammar
words in a language.
Competence A speaker’s implicit knowledge of linguistic rules.
Performance The actual use of language in real situations.
Dysfluencies Interruptions in the flow of speech, such as pauses, hesitations, or repetitions.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis The theory that language shapes thought and perception.
Linguistic Relativity The idea that language influences cognition and perception of reality.
Phonology The study of the sound system of a language.
Phonemes The smallest units of sound that can change meaning in a language.
The tendency to perceive phonemes as distinct categories rather than a continuum
Categorical Perception
of sounds.
Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language.
Phonemic Competence A speaker’s knowledge of permissible phoneme combinations in their language.
Problem of Invariance The challenge of recognizing phonemes despite variations in pronunciation.
Coarticulation The influence of surrounding sounds on the pronunciation of phonemes.
Contextual Effects The impact of surrounding linguistic or situational context on language perception.
Embodiment in Speech The theory that speech perception is influenced by bodily experience and motor
Perception processes.
The hypothesis that speech perception involves the same neural mechanisms as
Motor Theory
speech production.
Spectograph A tool used to visually represent the frequency and intensity of sounds over time.
Syntax The rules governing the structure of sentences in a language.
Phrase Structure Grammar A theory that explains sentence structure in terms of hierarchical units.
Deep structure represents the underlying meaning of a sentence, while surface
Deep vs. Surface Structure
structure is the actual word order.
Parsing Sentences The process of analyzing the syntactic structure of a sentence.
Rules that convert deep structures into surface structures in Transformational
Transformational Rules
Grammar.
A linguistic theory that describes language in terms of transformations from deep to
Transformational Grammar
surface structure.
Cognitive Role of Syntax The role that sentence structure plays in shaping thought and comprehension.
A principle stating that sentences are structured to present known information
Given-New Strategy
before introducing new information.
A model of speech production that outlines different stages of language
Fromkin’s Model
processing.
The mental store of words and their meanings, pronunciations, and grammatical
Mental Lexicon
properties.
Lexical Representation How words and their features are stored in memory.
Polysemy The phenomenon of a single word having multiple related meanings.
Bilingualism The ability to speak and understand two languages.
Case Grammar A theory that focuses on the roles that words play in sentences.
Semantic Cases The roles that words play in conveying meaning in sentences (e.g., agent, patient).
Conceptual Semantics The study of how meaning is structured in the mind.
Semantic Grammar A grammar framework focused on meaning rather than syntax.
Garden Path Sentences Sentences that lead the reader to an incorrect interpretation before clarification.
