Biopsychology
Content
* LEARNING GOALS ARE COMPARED WITH THE SUMMARY THROUGH CHATGPT ...........Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Part one – What is Biopsychology? ................................................................................................................. 2
Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience .............................................................................................. 2
Part two – Foundations of Biopsychology ........................................................................................................ 3
Chapter 2: Evolution, Genetics and Experience ........................................................................................... 3
Chapter 3: Anatomy of the Nervous system .................................................................................................... 6
Summary of major brain structures ....................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 4: Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission......................................................................... 11
Chapter 5: The Research Methods of Biopsychology .................................................................................. 16
Part three – Sensory and Motor Systems ....................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 6: The Visual System ................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 7: Mechanisms of Perception & Senses (PAGES 189-216) ............................................................. 28
Chapter 8: The Sensorimotor System (PAGES 218-242).............................................................................. 40
, Part one – What is Biopsychology?
Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience
Biopsychology is the specific study of the biological bases of behaviour, related to cognitive psychology: the
information processing in the brain using performance/behavioural research. First truly researched by figures
like Donald Hebb proposing the idea that complex psychological phenomena can be explained by neural
function.
Biopsychology-> neuroendocrinology, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neuropharmacology, neuropathology,
neurochemistry.
Biopsychological research:
Human versus nonhuman: humans (follow instructions, can give clear data, are cheaper, includes
higher cognitive processes) V.S. animals (interventions & measurements are easier in the ‘simpler’ brains,
allows comparing relationship brain complexity & functionality). Often quantitative not qualitative.
Experimental versus nonexperimental: non-experiment (quasi, group comparison without a random
assignment, case studies) V.S. experimental (manipulated/ independent variable & dependent variable &
confounding variable; effect the researcher cannot/hasn’t controlled for)
Pure versus applied: Pure (basic, fundamental like knowledge development with research questions
that are more complex) V.S. applied research ( more simple research questions using concepts and ideas from
basic research).
Divisions of biopsychology
Physiological psychology: uses surgical & electrical methods.
Psychopharmacology: uses drugs/medicines.
Neuropsychology: diagnoses & treats brain damage ( applied, clinical).
Psychophysiology: physiological basis of cognitive processes like attention, emotion, information processing.
Cognitive neuroscience: neural basis of cognition
Comparative psychology: animal behaviour
Evolutionary psychology: evolutionary origins of behaviour
Behavioural genetics: generic influences on behaviour
Biopsychologists work in either a clinical or research field, in the research section 1 experiment is never
sufficient and they converge operations by approaching a research question from a different perspective.
Scientific inference: drawing conclusions from data using logical reasoning and empirical evidence (e.g.
Delgado, Kennedy & Korsakoff).
Korsakoff’s syndrome: a severe memory disorder often linked to alcoholism, was studied using converging
operations. Researchers combined neuropsychological case studies, experimental research, and comparative
studies in animals to determine that it results from thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency rather than direct alcohol
toxicity.
Scientific inference is used to study processes that cannot be directly observed, such as how the brain
perceives motion. Research on eye movement shows that we do not perceive the world as a blur when moving
our eyes because our brain compensates for motion, an insight gained through controlled experiments.
Delgado: implanted electrodes in a bull’s brain and demonstrated that he could stop its charge by stimulating
the caudate nucleus.
Prefrontal lobotomy: a surgical procedure that severed connections in the prefrontal cortex, was once widely
used to treat psychiatric disorders. Egas Moniz popularized the procedure, but it later fell out of favor due to
severe side effects such as personality changes, cognitive impairment, and lack of scientific rigor in its
justification.
Term Definitions
Biopsychology The study of biological basis of behaviour and mental
processes, subdiscipline of neuroscience
Neuroanatomy The study of the structure of the nervous system
Neuroendocrinology The study of the interactions between the nervous and
endocrine systems
,Neurochemistry The study of chemical processes and neurotransmitters
in the nervous system
Neuropsychology The study of brain damage and its effects on cognitive
functions and behaviour
Psychophysiology The study of the relation between physiological processes
and psychological functions
Cognitive neuroscience The study of neural mechanisms underlying cognitive
functions like memory perception attention
Comparative Psychology The study of behaviour across different species to
understand evolutionary influences.
Pure Research Research aimed at expanding fundamental knowledge
without immediate practical application.
Applied Research Research aimed at solving practical problems using
insights from basic science.
Experimental Method A research approach involving the manipulation of
variables to establish causation.
Quasi-Experimental Study A study comparing groups without random assignment,
used when experiments are not feasible.
Case Study An in-depth examination of a single individual or small
group to explore unique conditions.
Scientific interference The process of drawing conclusions about unseen
mechanisms based on observable evidence.
Converging operations The use of multiple research methods to address a single
question in biopsychology.
Ethical Considerations Principles ensuring humane treatment, informed
consent, and minimizing harm in biopsychological
research.
Part two – Foundations of Biopsychology
Chapter 2: Evolution, Genetics and Experience
Originally science asked dichotomous questions e.g. Rene Descartes(; dualism) & Daniel Dennet. Descartes’
Cartesian dualism suggested that the mind and body are separate, influencing early psychology. However,
modern science rejects this strict separation, recognizing that psychological phenomena have biological
underpinnings. (e.g. of why dichotomous thinking is problematic).
Nature vs Nurture:
Ethology suggests that all knowledge is inherited whereas behaviourism suggests that all knowledge is
learned though conditioning and thus nurture. Currently it is said that it is not either but a combination of both
and there is no fixed proportion of nature or nurture as the twin studies suggests.
Biology of behaviour
1. Evolution influences pool of behaviour-influencing genes available to members of each species
2. Experience modifies the expression of an individual's genetic program
3. Each individual’s genes initiate a unique program of neural development
4. The development of each individual’s nervous system depends on the interaction of genes and
experiences
5. Each individual’s current behavioural capacities and tendencies are determined by its unique patterns
of neural activity, some of which are experiences as thoughts, feeling, memories, etc.
6. Each individual’s current behaviour arises out of interactions of neural activity and its perceptions of
the current situation
7. The success of each individual's behaviour influences the likelihood that its genes will be passed on to
future generations
Human evolution
Ontogenetic development: development of each individual during the life span (developmental psychology)
, Phylogenetic development: development of a species during evolution (e.g. eyeball pressure reflex: pressure
reduces with blood pressure)
Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (Haeckel, 1866): the development of the embryo (ontogeny) goes through
stages resembling the evolution of the animal's ancestors (phylogeny).
Basic principle of evolution: survival of the fittest, ‘fittest’ individuals with more useful properties these
propagate more (others die out). works only if there is a large variability within a species
Favourable traits include: speed (escaping predators), versatile limbs (e.g., finger-thumb opposition: access to
food), social dominance (primates: better access to food, frequent copulation with more females-more
offspring), intelligence (finding food, escaping).
New species are created when different subpopulations cannot reproduce together anymore because they are
too different (donkey-horses).
Human evolution
180 million years ago : mammals developed from reptiles
Developed mammary glands (milk), uterus = watery environment within the body & carrying the unborn
young increases survival chances.
20 orders of mammals, including primates (i.e., monkeys, apes and humans, primus= first)
From early primates to human beings.
2 million years ago: homo species developed from Australopethicus: bigger skull, fire, tools.
200,000 years ago: homo sapiens (‘wise man’), larger brain, upright posture, finger-thumb opposition.
50,000 years ago: homo sapiens migrated out of Africa.
Comparable structures in different species
Homologous: a common evolutionary origin (like the eyeball reflex, human arms and bird’s
wings)
Analogous: a similar mechanism not from a joint ancestor (bee and bird wings are entirely
different)
brain size
No clear relationship with intelligence
Not between species (human: 1.4 kg, whale: 8 kg)
Not within a species
IQ does correlate with
The brain / body weight ratio
The relative volume of the cerebrum (yellow) vs. brain stem (purple)
Cortex surface is important: space problem is solved by gyri (ridges) sulci (depressions)
Evolutionary psychology: the goal of each individual is to spread its genes, via propagation
(reproduction) & tendency: males: impregnate many females (promiscuity) females: devoted
to their own offspring (desire 1 male).
Humans are (usually) monogamous which gives an evolutionary advantage. Partner selection
priority is largely innate; men: tend to select fertile, healthy women (good=symmetrical figure
and face, ‘pretty’=average & healthy) & women: tend to select healthy men, with high status,
strong (able to care).
Genetics of Psychological Differences
Twin studies show that heredity has a strong influence when environments are equal. Example: "Three Identical
Strangers" – three identical twins raised separately had similar traits, but one had a strict father and died by
suicide.
Multiplier effect: Genetic traits can shape the environment (e.g., tall kids are encouraged to play basketball).
Fundamental Genetics
Genes are functional units of heredity, composed of DNA. Chromosomes contain DNA; humans have 23 pairs
(one from each parent). Sex-linked traits (e.g., colour blindness, haemophilia) are carried on the X
chromosome.
DNA replication occurs through:
Mitosis (cell division for growth and repair).
Meiosis (formation of sperm and egg cells).
Content
* LEARNING GOALS ARE COMPARED WITH THE SUMMARY THROUGH CHATGPT ...........Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Part one – What is Biopsychology? ................................................................................................................. 2
Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience .............................................................................................. 2
Part two – Foundations of Biopsychology ........................................................................................................ 3
Chapter 2: Evolution, Genetics and Experience ........................................................................................... 3
Chapter 3: Anatomy of the Nervous system .................................................................................................... 6
Summary of major brain structures ....................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 4: Neural Conduction and Synaptic Transmission......................................................................... 11
Chapter 5: The Research Methods of Biopsychology .................................................................................. 16
Part three – Sensory and Motor Systems ....................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 6: The Visual System ................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 7: Mechanisms of Perception & Senses (PAGES 189-216) ............................................................. 28
Chapter 8: The Sensorimotor System (PAGES 218-242).............................................................................. 40
, Part one – What is Biopsychology?
Chapter 1: Biopsychology as a Neuroscience
Biopsychology is the specific study of the biological bases of behaviour, related to cognitive psychology: the
information processing in the brain using performance/behavioural research. First truly researched by figures
like Donald Hebb proposing the idea that complex psychological phenomena can be explained by neural
function.
Biopsychology-> neuroendocrinology, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neuropharmacology, neuropathology,
neurochemistry.
Biopsychological research:
Human versus nonhuman: humans (follow instructions, can give clear data, are cheaper, includes
higher cognitive processes) V.S. animals (interventions & measurements are easier in the ‘simpler’ brains,
allows comparing relationship brain complexity & functionality). Often quantitative not qualitative.
Experimental versus nonexperimental: non-experiment (quasi, group comparison without a random
assignment, case studies) V.S. experimental (manipulated/ independent variable & dependent variable &
confounding variable; effect the researcher cannot/hasn’t controlled for)
Pure versus applied: Pure (basic, fundamental like knowledge development with research questions
that are more complex) V.S. applied research ( more simple research questions using concepts and ideas from
basic research).
Divisions of biopsychology
Physiological psychology: uses surgical & electrical methods.
Psychopharmacology: uses drugs/medicines.
Neuropsychology: diagnoses & treats brain damage ( applied, clinical).
Psychophysiology: physiological basis of cognitive processes like attention, emotion, information processing.
Cognitive neuroscience: neural basis of cognition
Comparative psychology: animal behaviour
Evolutionary psychology: evolutionary origins of behaviour
Behavioural genetics: generic influences on behaviour
Biopsychologists work in either a clinical or research field, in the research section 1 experiment is never
sufficient and they converge operations by approaching a research question from a different perspective.
Scientific inference: drawing conclusions from data using logical reasoning and empirical evidence (e.g.
Delgado, Kennedy & Korsakoff).
Korsakoff’s syndrome: a severe memory disorder often linked to alcoholism, was studied using converging
operations. Researchers combined neuropsychological case studies, experimental research, and comparative
studies in animals to determine that it results from thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency rather than direct alcohol
toxicity.
Scientific inference is used to study processes that cannot be directly observed, such as how the brain
perceives motion. Research on eye movement shows that we do not perceive the world as a blur when moving
our eyes because our brain compensates for motion, an insight gained through controlled experiments.
Delgado: implanted electrodes in a bull’s brain and demonstrated that he could stop its charge by stimulating
the caudate nucleus.
Prefrontal lobotomy: a surgical procedure that severed connections in the prefrontal cortex, was once widely
used to treat psychiatric disorders. Egas Moniz popularized the procedure, but it later fell out of favor due to
severe side effects such as personality changes, cognitive impairment, and lack of scientific rigor in its
justification.
Term Definitions
Biopsychology The study of biological basis of behaviour and mental
processes, subdiscipline of neuroscience
Neuroanatomy The study of the structure of the nervous system
Neuroendocrinology The study of the interactions between the nervous and
endocrine systems
,Neurochemistry The study of chemical processes and neurotransmitters
in the nervous system
Neuropsychology The study of brain damage and its effects on cognitive
functions and behaviour
Psychophysiology The study of the relation between physiological processes
and psychological functions
Cognitive neuroscience The study of neural mechanisms underlying cognitive
functions like memory perception attention
Comparative Psychology The study of behaviour across different species to
understand evolutionary influences.
Pure Research Research aimed at expanding fundamental knowledge
without immediate practical application.
Applied Research Research aimed at solving practical problems using
insights from basic science.
Experimental Method A research approach involving the manipulation of
variables to establish causation.
Quasi-Experimental Study A study comparing groups without random assignment,
used when experiments are not feasible.
Case Study An in-depth examination of a single individual or small
group to explore unique conditions.
Scientific interference The process of drawing conclusions about unseen
mechanisms based on observable evidence.
Converging operations The use of multiple research methods to address a single
question in biopsychology.
Ethical Considerations Principles ensuring humane treatment, informed
consent, and minimizing harm in biopsychological
research.
Part two – Foundations of Biopsychology
Chapter 2: Evolution, Genetics and Experience
Originally science asked dichotomous questions e.g. Rene Descartes(; dualism) & Daniel Dennet. Descartes’
Cartesian dualism suggested that the mind and body are separate, influencing early psychology. However,
modern science rejects this strict separation, recognizing that psychological phenomena have biological
underpinnings. (e.g. of why dichotomous thinking is problematic).
Nature vs Nurture:
Ethology suggests that all knowledge is inherited whereas behaviourism suggests that all knowledge is
learned though conditioning and thus nurture. Currently it is said that it is not either but a combination of both
and there is no fixed proportion of nature or nurture as the twin studies suggests.
Biology of behaviour
1. Evolution influences pool of behaviour-influencing genes available to members of each species
2. Experience modifies the expression of an individual's genetic program
3. Each individual’s genes initiate a unique program of neural development
4. The development of each individual’s nervous system depends on the interaction of genes and
experiences
5. Each individual’s current behavioural capacities and tendencies are determined by its unique patterns
of neural activity, some of which are experiences as thoughts, feeling, memories, etc.
6. Each individual’s current behaviour arises out of interactions of neural activity and its perceptions of
the current situation
7. The success of each individual's behaviour influences the likelihood that its genes will be passed on to
future generations
Human evolution
Ontogenetic development: development of each individual during the life span (developmental psychology)
, Phylogenetic development: development of a species during evolution (e.g. eyeball pressure reflex: pressure
reduces with blood pressure)
Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny (Haeckel, 1866): the development of the embryo (ontogeny) goes through
stages resembling the evolution of the animal's ancestors (phylogeny).
Basic principle of evolution: survival of the fittest, ‘fittest’ individuals with more useful properties these
propagate more (others die out). works only if there is a large variability within a species
Favourable traits include: speed (escaping predators), versatile limbs (e.g., finger-thumb opposition: access to
food), social dominance (primates: better access to food, frequent copulation with more females-more
offspring), intelligence (finding food, escaping).
New species are created when different subpopulations cannot reproduce together anymore because they are
too different (donkey-horses).
Human evolution
180 million years ago : mammals developed from reptiles
Developed mammary glands (milk), uterus = watery environment within the body & carrying the unborn
young increases survival chances.
20 orders of mammals, including primates (i.e., monkeys, apes and humans, primus= first)
From early primates to human beings.
2 million years ago: homo species developed from Australopethicus: bigger skull, fire, tools.
200,000 years ago: homo sapiens (‘wise man’), larger brain, upright posture, finger-thumb opposition.
50,000 years ago: homo sapiens migrated out of Africa.
Comparable structures in different species
Homologous: a common evolutionary origin (like the eyeball reflex, human arms and bird’s
wings)
Analogous: a similar mechanism not from a joint ancestor (bee and bird wings are entirely
different)
brain size
No clear relationship with intelligence
Not between species (human: 1.4 kg, whale: 8 kg)
Not within a species
IQ does correlate with
The brain / body weight ratio
The relative volume of the cerebrum (yellow) vs. brain stem (purple)
Cortex surface is important: space problem is solved by gyri (ridges) sulci (depressions)
Evolutionary psychology: the goal of each individual is to spread its genes, via propagation
(reproduction) & tendency: males: impregnate many females (promiscuity) females: devoted
to their own offspring (desire 1 male).
Humans are (usually) monogamous which gives an evolutionary advantage. Partner selection
priority is largely innate; men: tend to select fertile, healthy women (good=symmetrical figure
and face, ‘pretty’=average & healthy) & women: tend to select healthy men, with high status,
strong (able to care).
Genetics of Psychological Differences
Twin studies show that heredity has a strong influence when environments are equal. Example: "Three Identical
Strangers" – three identical twins raised separately had similar traits, but one had a strict father and died by
suicide.
Multiplier effect: Genetic traits can shape the environment (e.g., tall kids are encouraged to play basketball).
Fundamental Genetics
Genes are functional units of heredity, composed of DNA. Chromosomes contain DNA; humans have 23 pairs
(one from each parent). Sex-linked traits (e.g., colour blindness, haemophilia) are carried on the X
chromosome.
DNA replication occurs through:
Mitosis (cell division for growth and repair).
Meiosis (formation of sperm and egg cells).
