Research skills exam
Research skills reader (R.P.Hars)
Stof: section 1-30+32, paper Boilinger et al.(2021) en powerpoints.
1. What is science?
Business administration is a science, in much the same way that sociology, physics, biology
and psychology are. While the subject matter in all these disciplines is different, they share
three fundamental features. The first is systematic empiricism. Empiricism refers to learning
based on observations, and scientist learn about the world systematically. Logical reasoning
and even creativity play a role, but systematic observation is decisive, because ideas must
always be checked against observations.
The second feature of the scientific approach is that it is concerned with empirical questions.
These are questions about the way the world actually is. These can be answered by
systematic observations and analysis, for example determining whether an investment
strategy yields higher returns. There are important questions that are not empirically
testable, especially those about values. Such ethical of normative questions (fairness, harm,
or how systems ought to be structured) cannot be answered through observations alone.
Example: marketing research can empirically predict customer response to an e-mail
campaign. But whether it is ethical or fair to use customer data or send repeated massages is
a different, non-empirical type of question.
The third feature of science is that it creates public knowledge. After asking their empirical
questions, making their systematic observations, and drawing their conclusions, scientist
publish their work. Publication is an essential feature of science for two reasons. One is that
science is, a remarkably social process. The second is that publication allows science to be
self-correcting. Because individual studies can be flawed, or specific to the time and place in
which they were conducted, academics typically don’t treat a single study as the final say on
a certain subject. To resolve debates and test how widely theories apply, replication studies
are increasingly conducted across multiple labs and countries. For example, the ego-
depletion effect was tested in 23 labs across 12 countries, to examine whether the effect
truly exist.
2. The broader purposes of business research
People have always been curious about the natural world, including themselves and their
behaviour. Science grew out of this natural curiosity and has become the best way to achieve
detailed and accurate knowledge. Many of the theories in textbook are the results of
scientific research.
,The three goals of science:
- The first and most basic goal of science is to describe. This goal Is achieved by making
careful observations. For example: describing differences between successful and less
successful managers.
- The second goal of science is to explain. This goal involves determining the causes of
behaviour. For example: studying which characteristics of managers lead to success.
- The third and final goal of science is to predict. Once we have observed with some
regularity that two behaviors or events are systematically related to one another, we
can use that information to predict whether an event or behavior will occur in a
certain situation. For example: predicting whether a job candidate will become a
successful manager, or whether customers will switch to a competitor.
Scientific research is often classified as being either basic or applied. Basic research is
conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate understanding of
human behaviour, without necessarily trying to address any particular practical problem. In
contrast, applied research is conducted primarily to address some practical problem. Many
papers have both a ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ element to them, and many excellent studies
contribute both to theoretical and practical understanding.
3. Concepts, constructs, and variables
Explanations require development of concepts. Concept are generalisable properties or
characteristics associated with objects, events or people. Knowingly or unknowingly, we use
different kinds of concepts in our everyday conversations. Some of the concepts have been
developed over time through our shared language.
A construct is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen to explain a given phenomenon.
A construct may be a simple concept, such as a person’s weight, or a combination of a set of
related concepts such as a person’s communication skill, which may consist of several
underlying concepts such as the person’s vocabulary, syntax and spelling. The former
instance (weight) is a unidimensional construct, while the latter (communication skill) is
multidimensional construct because it consists of multiple underlying concepts. The
distinctions between constructs and concepts are clearer in multi-dimensional construct,
where the higher order abstractions are called concepts. However, this distinction tends to
blur in the case of unidimensional constructs.
A conceptual definition involves defining a construct on an abstract and theoretical level. For
example, a conceptual definition of perceived service quality could be ‘the degree and
direction of discrepancy between consumers. In contrast, operational definitions are
necessary when it comes to actually collecting and analysing data. In constructing an
operational definition, you have to be very specific on how you will actually measure your
,construct. Different operational definitions of the same construct may lead to different
research findings, even if the conceptual definition is the same.
The key thing to remember about operational definitions is that you have to be very specific
about how you will measure a construct. For instance, the operational definition of a
construct such as temperature must specify whether we plan to measure temperature in
Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kevin scale.
A construct is an abstract concept that cannot be measured directly. A variable is a
measurable representation of an abstract construct. For example, intelligence is a construct,
while an IQ score is a variable used to measure it. However, variables can be good or poor
measures of constructs, and there is ongoing debate about how well IQ truly represents
intelligence.
Scientific research proceeds along two planes: a theoretical plane in which we discuss
constructs, conceptual definitions and
propositions in an abstract sense.
There is also the empirical plane. Here,
constructs have operational definitions,
are measured by variables , about which
we may have hypotheses.
The same empirical observation can often
be explained in different ways on the
theoretical plane. For instance, the idea that offering employees a bike discount makes them
happier could be linked to different constructs, such as rewards, perceives sustainability, or
employee wellbeing. This shows how abstracting from a specific context helps connect
findings to broader theories and literature.
Types of variables:
Independent variable:
- Variables that explain other variables.
Dependent variable:
- Those that are explained by other variables.
Mediating variable:
- Variables that are explained by independent variables but explain dependent
variables. You can view mediating variables as variables that help us understand de
process through which something works.
Moderating variable:
- Is a variable that strengthens or weakens the fact of another variable, and can
sometimes even change the direction of the effect.
Control variables:
- Are variables that one has to ‘control for’, that is: take into account in a scientific
study, but are otherwise not of main interest.
, This overall network of relationships between a set of related constructs is called a
conceptual model. A conceptual model is often visualised to show the relationships between
constructs.
4. Propositions, hypotheses, theories and models
a proposition is a tentative and conjectural relationship between constructs that is stated in a
declarative form. An example: an increase in student intelligence causes an increase in their
academic achievement. This statement does not have to be true, but must be empirically
testable using data, so that we can judge whether it is true or false. Propositions are
generally derived based on logic or empirical observations. Because propositions are
abstract, they cannot be tested directly. They are tested indirectly through hypotheses,
which connect constructs to measurable variables.
Hypotheses: the empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between
variables. Hypotheses are specified on the empirical plane and can be rejected if not
supported by data. Hypotheses can be strong or weak. Weak hypotheses do not specify
direction or causality; stronger hypotheses include directionality and causality. Scientific
hypotheses should clearly specify independent and dependent variables.
Theories and models:
A theory is a set of systematically interrelated constructs and propositions intended to
explain and predict a phenomenon or behaviour of interest, within certain boundary
conditions and assumptions. A good scientific theory should be well supported using
observed facts and should also have practical value. Theories are not ‘truths’ but are
replaced over time by better theories with higher explanatory power. Both theory and
practice are essential.
A term often used in conjunction with theory is a model. A model is a representation of all or
part of a system that is constructed to study that system. While a theory tries to explain a
phenomenon, a model tries to represent a phenomenon. Models can be used both for
understanding and for prediction. In practice, models are often mathematical.
The process of theory building or model development may involve inductive and deductive
reasoning.
- Deduction is the process of drawing conclusions about a phenomenon or behaviour
based on theoretical of logical reasons and an initial set of premises.
- In contrast, induction is the process of drawing conclusions based on facts or
observed evidence. In scientific research, induction and deduction work hand in
hand: we observe facts and propose tentative explanations, then use deduction to
narrow them down to the most plausible explanation.
Research skills reader (R.P.Hars)
Stof: section 1-30+32, paper Boilinger et al.(2021) en powerpoints.
1. What is science?
Business administration is a science, in much the same way that sociology, physics, biology
and psychology are. While the subject matter in all these disciplines is different, they share
three fundamental features. The first is systematic empiricism. Empiricism refers to learning
based on observations, and scientist learn about the world systematically. Logical reasoning
and even creativity play a role, but systematic observation is decisive, because ideas must
always be checked against observations.
The second feature of the scientific approach is that it is concerned with empirical questions.
These are questions about the way the world actually is. These can be answered by
systematic observations and analysis, for example determining whether an investment
strategy yields higher returns. There are important questions that are not empirically
testable, especially those about values. Such ethical of normative questions (fairness, harm,
or how systems ought to be structured) cannot be answered through observations alone.
Example: marketing research can empirically predict customer response to an e-mail
campaign. But whether it is ethical or fair to use customer data or send repeated massages is
a different, non-empirical type of question.
The third feature of science is that it creates public knowledge. After asking their empirical
questions, making their systematic observations, and drawing their conclusions, scientist
publish their work. Publication is an essential feature of science for two reasons. One is that
science is, a remarkably social process. The second is that publication allows science to be
self-correcting. Because individual studies can be flawed, or specific to the time and place in
which they were conducted, academics typically don’t treat a single study as the final say on
a certain subject. To resolve debates and test how widely theories apply, replication studies
are increasingly conducted across multiple labs and countries. For example, the ego-
depletion effect was tested in 23 labs across 12 countries, to examine whether the effect
truly exist.
2. The broader purposes of business research
People have always been curious about the natural world, including themselves and their
behaviour. Science grew out of this natural curiosity and has become the best way to achieve
detailed and accurate knowledge. Many of the theories in textbook are the results of
scientific research.
,The three goals of science:
- The first and most basic goal of science is to describe. This goal Is achieved by making
careful observations. For example: describing differences between successful and less
successful managers.
- The second goal of science is to explain. This goal involves determining the causes of
behaviour. For example: studying which characteristics of managers lead to success.
- The third and final goal of science is to predict. Once we have observed with some
regularity that two behaviors or events are systematically related to one another, we
can use that information to predict whether an event or behavior will occur in a
certain situation. For example: predicting whether a job candidate will become a
successful manager, or whether customers will switch to a competitor.
Scientific research is often classified as being either basic or applied. Basic research is
conducted primarily for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate understanding of
human behaviour, without necessarily trying to address any particular practical problem. In
contrast, applied research is conducted primarily to address some practical problem. Many
papers have both a ‘basic’ and ‘applied’ element to them, and many excellent studies
contribute both to theoretical and practical understanding.
3. Concepts, constructs, and variables
Explanations require development of concepts. Concept are generalisable properties or
characteristics associated with objects, events or people. Knowingly or unknowingly, we use
different kinds of concepts in our everyday conversations. Some of the concepts have been
developed over time through our shared language.
A construct is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen to explain a given phenomenon.
A construct may be a simple concept, such as a person’s weight, or a combination of a set of
related concepts such as a person’s communication skill, which may consist of several
underlying concepts such as the person’s vocabulary, syntax and spelling. The former
instance (weight) is a unidimensional construct, while the latter (communication skill) is
multidimensional construct because it consists of multiple underlying concepts. The
distinctions between constructs and concepts are clearer in multi-dimensional construct,
where the higher order abstractions are called concepts. However, this distinction tends to
blur in the case of unidimensional constructs.
A conceptual definition involves defining a construct on an abstract and theoretical level. For
example, a conceptual definition of perceived service quality could be ‘the degree and
direction of discrepancy between consumers. In contrast, operational definitions are
necessary when it comes to actually collecting and analysing data. In constructing an
operational definition, you have to be very specific on how you will actually measure your
,construct. Different operational definitions of the same construct may lead to different
research findings, even if the conceptual definition is the same.
The key thing to remember about operational definitions is that you have to be very specific
about how you will measure a construct. For instance, the operational definition of a
construct such as temperature must specify whether we plan to measure temperature in
Celsius, Fahrenheit, or Kevin scale.
A construct is an abstract concept that cannot be measured directly. A variable is a
measurable representation of an abstract construct. For example, intelligence is a construct,
while an IQ score is a variable used to measure it. However, variables can be good or poor
measures of constructs, and there is ongoing debate about how well IQ truly represents
intelligence.
Scientific research proceeds along two planes: a theoretical plane in which we discuss
constructs, conceptual definitions and
propositions in an abstract sense.
There is also the empirical plane. Here,
constructs have operational definitions,
are measured by variables , about which
we may have hypotheses.
The same empirical observation can often
be explained in different ways on the
theoretical plane. For instance, the idea that offering employees a bike discount makes them
happier could be linked to different constructs, such as rewards, perceives sustainability, or
employee wellbeing. This shows how abstracting from a specific context helps connect
findings to broader theories and literature.
Types of variables:
Independent variable:
- Variables that explain other variables.
Dependent variable:
- Those that are explained by other variables.
Mediating variable:
- Variables that are explained by independent variables but explain dependent
variables. You can view mediating variables as variables that help us understand de
process through which something works.
Moderating variable:
- Is a variable that strengthens or weakens the fact of another variable, and can
sometimes even change the direction of the effect.
Control variables:
- Are variables that one has to ‘control for’, that is: take into account in a scientific
study, but are otherwise not of main interest.
, This overall network of relationships between a set of related constructs is called a
conceptual model. A conceptual model is often visualised to show the relationships between
constructs.
4. Propositions, hypotheses, theories and models
a proposition is a tentative and conjectural relationship between constructs that is stated in a
declarative form. An example: an increase in student intelligence causes an increase in their
academic achievement. This statement does not have to be true, but must be empirically
testable using data, so that we can judge whether it is true or false. Propositions are
generally derived based on logic or empirical observations. Because propositions are
abstract, they cannot be tested directly. They are tested indirectly through hypotheses,
which connect constructs to measurable variables.
Hypotheses: the empirical formulation of propositions, stated as relationships between
variables. Hypotheses are specified on the empirical plane and can be rejected if not
supported by data. Hypotheses can be strong or weak. Weak hypotheses do not specify
direction or causality; stronger hypotheses include directionality and causality. Scientific
hypotheses should clearly specify independent and dependent variables.
Theories and models:
A theory is a set of systematically interrelated constructs and propositions intended to
explain and predict a phenomenon or behaviour of interest, within certain boundary
conditions and assumptions. A good scientific theory should be well supported using
observed facts and should also have practical value. Theories are not ‘truths’ but are
replaced over time by better theories with higher explanatory power. Both theory and
practice are essential.
A term often used in conjunction with theory is a model. A model is a representation of all or
part of a system that is constructed to study that system. While a theory tries to explain a
phenomenon, a model tries to represent a phenomenon. Models can be used both for
understanding and for prediction. In practice, models are often mathematical.
The process of theory building or model development may involve inductive and deductive
reasoning.
- Deduction is the process of drawing conclusions about a phenomenon or behaviour
based on theoretical of logical reasons and an initial set of premises.
- In contrast, induction is the process of drawing conclusions based on facts or
observed evidence. In scientific research, induction and deduction work hand in
hand: we observe facts and propose tentative explanations, then use deduction to
narrow them down to the most plausible explanation.
