Authoritarian States – China
Mao Zedong 1893 – 1976:
End of the 19th century: China faced significant problems as it had been forced to accept ‘unequal treaties’
with Western nations, surrendering sovereign territory and accepting trade on Western terms
1885: Military defeat to Japan
− Industry and commerce largely under foreign control and was heavily in debt to foreign banks
− Population had doubled in the 19th century. Agriculture had been unable to support this growth,
causing famines
1893: Mao born at a time of great social, political and cultural change. China was pressured by imperialism
and pushes from modernising reforms
1905: Sun Yatsen founded the Guomindang (GMD) Nationalist Party, adopting a radical programme with
the idea that China should develop along the same lines as Japan, starting with the removal of the Qing
Dynasty
1911: Revolution of 1911 erupted in China with widespread discontent with the dynastic system
1912: Revolution began with a military coup, forcing the Qing to abdicate. Mao was an avid supporter of
the revolution and its aims of social and political reform
1912: Republic established, with Yuan Shikai, a military commander and conservative as the President
1916: Republic collapsed due to borrowing heavily and giving into Japanese demands, was disorganised
and rife with corrupt officials and it failed to establish central authority in China
− Provincial military leaders took advantage of the weakness of the central Republican government to
impose themselves as individual rulers in their own areas. Had their own private armies, imposed their
own laws and defied government attempts to bring them under control
May 1919: China told it wouldn’t recover the territories which Germany had taken in WWI, they would be
given to Japan instead
− Led to the May Fourth Movement – anti-government, anti-foreigner protests and demonstrations. Mao
was very patriotic, embittered by China’s failings and impressed by Sun Yatsen’s revolutionary ideas.
Saw extreme methods as being necessary to gain success politically or militarily. Became convinced
that China needed to undergo significant political and social change to become great again, becoming
attracted to Marxist ideas
1921: Mao became one of the first members of the new Chinese Communist Party (CCP), playing a key role
in organising the alliance between the GMD and the Communists between 1924 and 1927 known as the
First United Front
1927: Fearful of the growing influence of the CCP, the GMD carried out a crackdown on Communists,
imprisoning or executing left wing leaders. This marked the end of the First United Front and the start of a
rivalry between the CCP and GMD. Mao took his CCP forces to the remote mountains of Jiangxi province
where he tried to build a Chinese soviet
1934-5: Long March – Communists forced to leave Jiangxi. Mao organiser of this, much dispute amongst
the march leaders but Mao led them to safety, enhancing his reputation and authority
1935: Once established in Yanan, Mao claimed leadership of the CCP, turning the base into a Communist
soviet. Sent the Red Army to occupy neighbouring regions. Landowners driven out or shot then the area
declared to be ‘liberated’ then reallocated to the peasants with the intention of making them supporters of
the Communist soviet
− Mao’s plan was to win over the peasants – 80% of the population. Red Army instructed to aid and
comfort the people, in contrast to how imperial and warlord military forces had terrorised the people.
, Introduced a number of schemes like creation of local peasant associations, literacy and education
programmes, and providing basic medical needs. This was a significant factor in the growth of the CCP
from 40,000 in 1937 to 1 million by 1945
− However, the Yanan regime was very authoritarian. Villages that wouldn’t conform to the CCP’s
demands faced harsh penalties. The local community controlling its own affairs was undermined by the
way the Communists had a CCP member on each committee with the power to veto decisions and
direct policy
1930s: Mao had to battle to assert his authority within the CCP. Main opponent was Wang Ming, leader of
a faction called ‘the 28 Bolsheviks’ who criticised Mao for ignoring Comintern instructions and acting
independently. However, Mao had moral superiority over them due to his success in the Long March; he
had excellent knowledge of the Chinese peasantry so dominated any discussion on the Party’s peasant
policy; determination allowed him to silence his critics and bring doubters into line; was indispensable as a
military planner
− The communism which Mao developed at Yanan was fundamentally oppressive
1931: Manchurian Railway crisis and Japanese invasion of northern Manchuria
1936: Popular opinion shifted from fighting the Chinese Communists to fighting Japanese aggression.
Chiang, the leader of the GMD, agreed to ally with the Communists against the Japanese in the Second
United Front
1937: Start of the Sino-Japanese War and the ‘Rape of Nanjing’. Chiang Kaishek was slow to respond to the
Japanese action, which the CCP exploited by portraying themselves as the true defenders of China against
the Japanese. Chiang’s main aim was to crush the Communists. It seemed he wasn’t fully committed to the
fight against Japan
1942-44: Rectification Movement – Party members were encouraged to engage in public self-criticism. 60
Communist Party officials committed suicide rather than be publicly humiliated. Consolidated his position
as leader and got rid of opposition and had success over the pro-Moscow wing of the Party
1943: Mao formally became the unchallenged leader of the CCP
1945: Sino-Japanese War ended. Conflict between the CCP under Mao and the GMD under Chiang re-
emerged with six million soldiers being killed
1947: CCP had already established a foothold in Manchuria which their Russian allies allowed them to
occupy after the Sino-Japanese War
1st Oct 1949: Mao announced the formation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Chiang fled to Taiwan,
where he installed the remnants of his GMD administration, claiming to be the legitimate government in
China
− Nationalist weaknesses were key to Mao’s success. There was a lack of skill and judgement in the
Nationalist military commanders; lack of training for the soldiers; low nationalist morale; GMD failed to
inspire their forces; lacked discipline and effective propaganda; unpopular with the people of China;
failed to make effective use of the arms and resources given to them by the USA
− Mao was a very good military leader. The Red Army were able to live off the land and have support and
resources from the people. Mao also resisted interference from Russia – Stalin pushed for Mao to have
a compromise of peace with Chiang as he didn’t want a strong united China as his neighbour
− Established a single-party state by authoritarian means. His policies transformed the political, economic
and social structures of China
1950: Beginning of the Korean War. Alarmed by the UN victories and fearful of the US securing a foothold
in North Korea, Mao ordered PRC troops to reinforce the North Koreans
1956: Mao encouraged Chinese to express their opinion about the government openly in his ‘hundred
flowers’ speech
, 1957: Crackdown on those that had spoken out were arrested and imprisoned or sent to labour camps
1958: Mao launched a new economic program he called ‘The Great Leap Forward’, promoting labour-
intensive production that was less reliant on technology and expensive machinery in order to capitalise on
China’s huge labour supply. Promoted collective farming in peasant communities aiming to increase
output. Poor organisation, unrealistic planning, poor harvests and a lack of communication between rural
and urban areas led to widespread famine and a drastic drop in production. This strained relations
between China and the Soviet Union. Mao ceded party leadership to other prominent members of the CCP
1966: Effort to regain power. Mao launched the Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution. Movement resulted
in political disorder, terror, violence and chaos
1972: Mao invited President Nixon of the USA to visit China
9 Sept 1976: Mao Zedong died
− Many in China view him as the liberator of China who restored national pride, whereas in the West he
is often regarded as a despot who used their own brand of communism to establish totalitarian rule
Leadership style: authoritarian dictator – told the people to speak out criticising the government in his
‘hundred flowers’ speech then arrested and imprisoned them all – limited free speech
How he retained power: communism, so removal of all political opponents
Threats he faced: the GMD crack down on Communists, UN and US in North Korea
First Five Year Plan 1952-56:
Why it wasn’t immediately introduced:
− Had to consolidate political control, remaining nationalist opposition had to be dealt with, and outer
provinces brought under control
− Annual inflation had to be reduced
− Peasants had to be rewarded for their support by arranging land redistribution as soon as possible
− High levels of military spending on the Korean War from October 1950
− China was ready in 1951 because inflation reduced to 15% - achieved by cuts in public spending,
increases in taxation, and the replacement of the old Chinese dollar with the yuan
Reasons why the Five Year Plan was based on the Soviet model:
− Russia was an inspiration to Chinese communists
− Mao made it clear he would ‘lean to one side’ by aligning China with Russia rather than looking towards
the west for help
− The centrally planned Soviet system had enabled Stalin to defeat Hitler, so it was regarded as the best
system for China to emulate
− Mao’s task in introducing a centrally planned economy was made easier by the fact there had been
some degree of state involvement in Chinese industry since imperial times and this had accelerated
under Kai-shek, who had established a National Resources Committee (NRC) to control industrial
development and encourage movement to the cities. Mao was able to use the expertise of the NRC
The nature of Soviet help:
− Key part of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1950 was the arrangement for Soviet advisers to come to China
and teach them how to run a communist state
− Over 10,000 civilian technicians brought their specialist knowledge of civil engineering, industry,
governmental organisation and higher education
− There was a high price tag attached to this. Their high salaries were paid by the Chinese and they were
housed at Chinese expense in guarded compounds
Mao Zedong 1893 – 1976:
End of the 19th century: China faced significant problems as it had been forced to accept ‘unequal treaties’
with Western nations, surrendering sovereign territory and accepting trade on Western terms
1885: Military defeat to Japan
− Industry and commerce largely under foreign control and was heavily in debt to foreign banks
− Population had doubled in the 19th century. Agriculture had been unable to support this growth,
causing famines
1893: Mao born at a time of great social, political and cultural change. China was pressured by imperialism
and pushes from modernising reforms
1905: Sun Yatsen founded the Guomindang (GMD) Nationalist Party, adopting a radical programme with
the idea that China should develop along the same lines as Japan, starting with the removal of the Qing
Dynasty
1911: Revolution of 1911 erupted in China with widespread discontent with the dynastic system
1912: Revolution began with a military coup, forcing the Qing to abdicate. Mao was an avid supporter of
the revolution and its aims of social and political reform
1912: Republic established, with Yuan Shikai, a military commander and conservative as the President
1916: Republic collapsed due to borrowing heavily and giving into Japanese demands, was disorganised
and rife with corrupt officials and it failed to establish central authority in China
− Provincial military leaders took advantage of the weakness of the central Republican government to
impose themselves as individual rulers in their own areas. Had their own private armies, imposed their
own laws and defied government attempts to bring them under control
May 1919: China told it wouldn’t recover the territories which Germany had taken in WWI, they would be
given to Japan instead
− Led to the May Fourth Movement – anti-government, anti-foreigner protests and demonstrations. Mao
was very patriotic, embittered by China’s failings and impressed by Sun Yatsen’s revolutionary ideas.
Saw extreme methods as being necessary to gain success politically or militarily. Became convinced
that China needed to undergo significant political and social change to become great again, becoming
attracted to Marxist ideas
1921: Mao became one of the first members of the new Chinese Communist Party (CCP), playing a key role
in organising the alliance between the GMD and the Communists between 1924 and 1927 known as the
First United Front
1927: Fearful of the growing influence of the CCP, the GMD carried out a crackdown on Communists,
imprisoning or executing left wing leaders. This marked the end of the First United Front and the start of a
rivalry between the CCP and GMD. Mao took his CCP forces to the remote mountains of Jiangxi province
where he tried to build a Chinese soviet
1934-5: Long March – Communists forced to leave Jiangxi. Mao organiser of this, much dispute amongst
the march leaders but Mao led them to safety, enhancing his reputation and authority
1935: Once established in Yanan, Mao claimed leadership of the CCP, turning the base into a Communist
soviet. Sent the Red Army to occupy neighbouring regions. Landowners driven out or shot then the area
declared to be ‘liberated’ then reallocated to the peasants with the intention of making them supporters of
the Communist soviet
− Mao’s plan was to win over the peasants – 80% of the population. Red Army instructed to aid and
comfort the people, in contrast to how imperial and warlord military forces had terrorised the people.
, Introduced a number of schemes like creation of local peasant associations, literacy and education
programmes, and providing basic medical needs. This was a significant factor in the growth of the CCP
from 40,000 in 1937 to 1 million by 1945
− However, the Yanan regime was very authoritarian. Villages that wouldn’t conform to the CCP’s
demands faced harsh penalties. The local community controlling its own affairs was undermined by the
way the Communists had a CCP member on each committee with the power to veto decisions and
direct policy
1930s: Mao had to battle to assert his authority within the CCP. Main opponent was Wang Ming, leader of
a faction called ‘the 28 Bolsheviks’ who criticised Mao for ignoring Comintern instructions and acting
independently. However, Mao had moral superiority over them due to his success in the Long March; he
had excellent knowledge of the Chinese peasantry so dominated any discussion on the Party’s peasant
policy; determination allowed him to silence his critics and bring doubters into line; was indispensable as a
military planner
− The communism which Mao developed at Yanan was fundamentally oppressive
1931: Manchurian Railway crisis and Japanese invasion of northern Manchuria
1936: Popular opinion shifted from fighting the Chinese Communists to fighting Japanese aggression.
Chiang, the leader of the GMD, agreed to ally with the Communists against the Japanese in the Second
United Front
1937: Start of the Sino-Japanese War and the ‘Rape of Nanjing’. Chiang Kaishek was slow to respond to the
Japanese action, which the CCP exploited by portraying themselves as the true defenders of China against
the Japanese. Chiang’s main aim was to crush the Communists. It seemed he wasn’t fully committed to the
fight against Japan
1942-44: Rectification Movement – Party members were encouraged to engage in public self-criticism. 60
Communist Party officials committed suicide rather than be publicly humiliated. Consolidated his position
as leader and got rid of opposition and had success over the pro-Moscow wing of the Party
1943: Mao formally became the unchallenged leader of the CCP
1945: Sino-Japanese War ended. Conflict between the CCP under Mao and the GMD under Chiang re-
emerged with six million soldiers being killed
1947: CCP had already established a foothold in Manchuria which their Russian allies allowed them to
occupy after the Sino-Japanese War
1st Oct 1949: Mao announced the formation of the People’s Republic of China (PRC). Chiang fled to Taiwan,
where he installed the remnants of his GMD administration, claiming to be the legitimate government in
China
− Nationalist weaknesses were key to Mao’s success. There was a lack of skill and judgement in the
Nationalist military commanders; lack of training for the soldiers; low nationalist morale; GMD failed to
inspire their forces; lacked discipline and effective propaganda; unpopular with the people of China;
failed to make effective use of the arms and resources given to them by the USA
− Mao was a very good military leader. The Red Army were able to live off the land and have support and
resources from the people. Mao also resisted interference from Russia – Stalin pushed for Mao to have
a compromise of peace with Chiang as he didn’t want a strong united China as his neighbour
− Established a single-party state by authoritarian means. His policies transformed the political, economic
and social structures of China
1950: Beginning of the Korean War. Alarmed by the UN victories and fearful of the US securing a foothold
in North Korea, Mao ordered PRC troops to reinforce the North Koreans
1956: Mao encouraged Chinese to express their opinion about the government openly in his ‘hundred
flowers’ speech
, 1957: Crackdown on those that had spoken out were arrested and imprisoned or sent to labour camps
1958: Mao launched a new economic program he called ‘The Great Leap Forward’, promoting labour-
intensive production that was less reliant on technology and expensive machinery in order to capitalise on
China’s huge labour supply. Promoted collective farming in peasant communities aiming to increase
output. Poor organisation, unrealistic planning, poor harvests and a lack of communication between rural
and urban areas led to widespread famine and a drastic drop in production. This strained relations
between China and the Soviet Union. Mao ceded party leadership to other prominent members of the CCP
1966: Effort to regain power. Mao launched the Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution. Movement resulted
in political disorder, terror, violence and chaos
1972: Mao invited President Nixon of the USA to visit China
9 Sept 1976: Mao Zedong died
− Many in China view him as the liberator of China who restored national pride, whereas in the West he
is often regarded as a despot who used their own brand of communism to establish totalitarian rule
Leadership style: authoritarian dictator – told the people to speak out criticising the government in his
‘hundred flowers’ speech then arrested and imprisoned them all – limited free speech
How he retained power: communism, so removal of all political opponents
Threats he faced: the GMD crack down on Communists, UN and US in North Korea
First Five Year Plan 1952-56:
Why it wasn’t immediately introduced:
− Had to consolidate political control, remaining nationalist opposition had to be dealt with, and outer
provinces brought under control
− Annual inflation had to be reduced
− Peasants had to be rewarded for their support by arranging land redistribution as soon as possible
− High levels of military spending on the Korean War from October 1950
− China was ready in 1951 because inflation reduced to 15% - achieved by cuts in public spending,
increases in taxation, and the replacement of the old Chinese dollar with the yuan
Reasons why the Five Year Plan was based on the Soviet model:
− Russia was an inspiration to Chinese communists
− Mao made it clear he would ‘lean to one side’ by aligning China with Russia rather than looking towards
the west for help
− The centrally planned Soviet system had enabled Stalin to defeat Hitler, so it was regarded as the best
system for China to emulate
− Mao’s task in introducing a centrally planned economy was made easier by the fact there had been
some degree of state involvement in Chinese industry since imperial times and this had accelerated
under Kai-shek, who had established a National Resources Committee (NRC) to control industrial
development and encourage movement to the cities. Mao was able to use the expertise of the NRC
The nature of Soviet help:
− Key part of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1950 was the arrangement for Soviet advisers to come to China
and teach them how to run a communist state
− Over 10,000 civilian technicians brought their specialist knowledge of civil engineering, industry,
governmental organisation and higher education
− There was a high price tag attached to this. Their high salaries were paid by the Chinese and they were
housed at Chinese expense in guarded compounds
