‘Does Psychology have anything distinctive to offer the study of religion? Answer with reference to
William James and Sigmund Freud.’ W.C: 1643
Psychologists approach the study of religion through a multi-faceted lens. Using a range of techniques,
from scientific studies of religious believers and their experiences, psychologists analyse the historical
developments of religion, to make statements about the psychological (and sometimes physiological)
nature of religious belief, spirituality, and myth. The most prominent early psychologists who studied
religion are William James and Sigmund Freud, both of whom used their own case studies to make their
conclusions, with James focusing on the nature of religious experiences, and Freud presenting religion as a
neurosis. This essay will examine the core arguments of these two psychologists, to argue that the field of
psychology offers a distinctive perspective on religion, through its unique mixed techniques of study,
scientific methods, and focus on the developing human condition.
William James was a philosopher and psychologist, whose famous 1902 Gifford Lectures on natural religion
at the University of Edinburgh were collated into the work ‘The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in
Human Nature.’ In the 20 lectures, he approached a range of topics, from the value of saintliness (lectures
14 and 15), to conversion (9 and 10) and his ideas on the human soul (4, 5, 6, 7, 8.) Furthermore, he
assessed all the facets of religion, spirituality and myth, using his own studies, the work of others, and a
range of writings to support his arguments, presenting his conclusions as well rounded and convincing.
Most notably, in relation to his ideas on mysticism, he based his theories on his own observations of those
who had undergone a religious experience, drawing four key ‘marks of religion’ from those: passivity,
ineffability, noetic quality and transiency.1 Indeed, this is an example of the distinctiveness of psychological
approaches to religion, as they rely on a range of viewpoints and draw on other methods of study to make
their conclusion. Thus, James’ methods offer a unique perspective to the study of religion from the outset.
Perhaps most notable is James’ use of observation to draw up examples of typical mystical experiences.
Suggesting that experiences form a ladder, with the most rudimentary form at the bottom rung, and the
most complex and powerful at the top, James created a framework through which to define and categorise
mystical experiences. For example, at the very bottom is the increased significance of a certain idea or
feeling, which rushes over someone, such as through the reading of poetry or listening to music. 2 Higher up
on the ladder is the feeling of de-ja-vu, described by Sir James Crichton-Browne as the ‘dreamy states’ of a
metaphysical and transcendent quality.3 James’ inclusion of these almost everyday experiences in his
framework is notable, suggesting an attentiveness that is only possible through a multi-faceted,
methodological approach, which takes into account all angles of human experience. As such, psychologists
clearly have a distinctive viewpoint to offer to the study of religion.
James also includes in his account the consciousness produced by intoxicants, and the awakening mystical
power of nature, highlighting the variety of his approach. James argues that intoxicants, especially alcohol,
have the power to reveal depths beyond truth, with the drunken consciousness forming a part of mystical
1
James, William. The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2012. Pg381.
2
Ibid., pg383.
3
Ibid., pg384.
William James and Sigmund Freud.’ W.C: 1643
Psychologists approach the study of religion through a multi-faceted lens. Using a range of techniques,
from scientific studies of religious believers and their experiences, psychologists analyse the historical
developments of religion, to make statements about the psychological (and sometimes physiological)
nature of religious belief, spirituality, and myth. The most prominent early psychologists who studied
religion are William James and Sigmund Freud, both of whom used their own case studies to make their
conclusions, with James focusing on the nature of religious experiences, and Freud presenting religion as a
neurosis. This essay will examine the core arguments of these two psychologists, to argue that the field of
psychology offers a distinctive perspective on religion, through its unique mixed techniques of study,
scientific methods, and focus on the developing human condition.
William James was a philosopher and psychologist, whose famous 1902 Gifford Lectures on natural religion
at the University of Edinburgh were collated into the work ‘The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in
Human Nature.’ In the 20 lectures, he approached a range of topics, from the value of saintliness (lectures
14 and 15), to conversion (9 and 10) and his ideas on the human soul (4, 5, 6, 7, 8.) Furthermore, he
assessed all the facets of religion, spirituality and myth, using his own studies, the work of others, and a
range of writings to support his arguments, presenting his conclusions as well rounded and convincing.
Most notably, in relation to his ideas on mysticism, he based his theories on his own observations of those
who had undergone a religious experience, drawing four key ‘marks of religion’ from those: passivity,
ineffability, noetic quality and transiency.1 Indeed, this is an example of the distinctiveness of psychological
approaches to religion, as they rely on a range of viewpoints and draw on other methods of study to make
their conclusion. Thus, James’ methods offer a unique perspective to the study of religion from the outset.
Perhaps most notable is James’ use of observation to draw up examples of typical mystical experiences.
Suggesting that experiences form a ladder, with the most rudimentary form at the bottom rung, and the
most complex and powerful at the top, James created a framework through which to define and categorise
mystical experiences. For example, at the very bottom is the increased significance of a certain idea or
feeling, which rushes over someone, such as through the reading of poetry or listening to music. 2 Higher up
on the ladder is the feeling of de-ja-vu, described by Sir James Crichton-Browne as the ‘dreamy states’ of a
metaphysical and transcendent quality.3 James’ inclusion of these almost everyday experiences in his
framework is notable, suggesting an attentiveness that is only possible through a multi-faceted,
methodological approach, which takes into account all angles of human experience. As such, psychologists
clearly have a distinctive viewpoint to offer to the study of religion.
James also includes in his account the consciousness produced by intoxicants, and the awakening mystical
power of nature, highlighting the variety of his approach. James argues that intoxicants, especially alcohol,
have the power to reveal depths beyond truth, with the drunken consciousness forming a part of mystical
1
James, William. The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2012. Pg381.
2
Ibid., pg383.
3
Ibid., pg384.
