Attachment Consolidation
Caregiver-Infant Interactions
What is an Attachment?
Notes
• An attachment can be defined as a close two-way emotional bond between two individuals, in which each individual
sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
• Attachment in humans takes a few months to develop
• We can recognise an attachment when people display the following behaviours:
o Proximity
▪ People try to stay physically close to their attachment figures
o Separation distress
▪ People show signs of anxiety when an attachment figure leaves their presence
o Secure-base behaviour
▪ Even when we are independent of our attachment figures, we tend to make regular contact with
them
Babies display secure-base behaviour when they regularly return to their attachment figure while they are playing, for example
Key Terms
Reciprocity
• A description of how two people interact
o Caregiver-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both caregiver and baby respond to each other’s signals and
each elicits a response from the other
Interactional Synchrony
• Caregiver and baby reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and they do this in a coordinated
(synchronised) way
Caregiver-Infant Interactions
Overview
• From the start, babies have meaningful social interactions with their carers
o Psychologists believe that these interactions have important functions for the child’s social development
• In particular, good quality early social interactions are associated with the successful development of attachments
between babies and their caregiver(s)
Reciprocity
Overview
• From birth, babies and their mothers (or other caregivers) spend a lot of time in intense and highly pleasurable
interaction
o An interaction is said to show reciprocity when each person involved in the interaction responds to the other
and elicits a response from them
▪ For example, a caregiver might respond to their baby’s smile by saying something, and this – in turn –
elicits a response from their baby
o This kind of reciprocal interaction is also sometimes called ‘turn-taking’
▪ It is an essential part of any conversation, otherwise people talk over each other
Alert Phases
• Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ in which they signal (e.g. making eye contact) that they are ready for a spell of
interaction
o Research shows that mothers typically pick up on and respond to their baby’s alertness around two thirds of
the time (Feldman and Eidelman, 2007), although this varies according to the skill of the mother and external
factors, such as stress (Finegood et al., 2016)
• From around three months, this interaction tends to become increasingly frequent and more reciprocal
,Active Involvement
• Traditional views of childhood have portrayed babies in a passive role, receiving care from an adult
o However, it seems that babies actually take quite an active role, alongside their caregivers
▪ Both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions, and they appear to take turns in doing so
o T. Berry Brazelton et al. (1975) described this interaction as a ‘dance’ because it is just like a couple’s dance,
where each partner responds to the other person’s moves
Interactional Synchrony
Overview
• Two people are said to be ‘synchronised’ when they carry out the same action simultaneously
• Interactional synchrony can, thus, be defined as ‘the temporal coordination of micro-level social behaviour’
(Feldman, 2007)
o It takes place when caregiver and baby interact in such a way that their actions and emotions mirror the other
Synchrony Begins
• Andrew Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977) observed the beginning of interactional synchrony with caregivers in babies
as young as two weeks old
o An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three distinct gestures
▪ The baby’s response was filmed and labelled by independent observers
o Babies’ expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults more than chance would
predict, i.e. there was a significant association
Importance for Attachment
• It is widely believed among psychologists that interactional synchrony is important for the development of caregiver-
infant attachment
• Russell Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony
o The researchers also assessed the quality of mother-baby attachment
▪ They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-baby
attachment (e.g. the emotional intensity of the relationship)
Evaluation
Filmed Observations
• One strength of the research on this topic is that caregiver-infant interactions are usually filmed in a laboratory
o This means that other activity that might distract a baby can be controlled
o Also, using films means that observations can be recorded and analysed later on
▪ Therefore, it is quite unlikely that the researchers will miss seeing key behaviours
o Furthermore, having filmed interactions means that more than one observer can record data and establish
the inter-rater reliability of observations
o Finally, babies don’t know that they are being observed, meaning that their behaviour does not change in
response to the observation (this is generally the main problem for overt observations)
▪ Therefore, the data collected in such research on this topic is likely to have good reliability and
validity
Difficulty Observing Babies
• One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interaction is that it is hard to interpret a baby’s behaviour in a way that
is likely to be completely accurate
o Young babies lack coordination and much of their bodies are almost immobile
▪ The movements that are being observed are generally just small hand movements or subtle changes
in expression
o It is difficult to be sure, for example, whether a baby is smiling or just passing wind
o It is also difficult to determine what is taking place from the baby’s perspective
▪ For example, we cannot know whether a movement, such as a twitch of the baby’s hand, is random
or triggered by something that the caregiver has done
• This means that we cannot be certain that the behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have any specific or
special meaning
, Developmental Importance
• A further limitation is that simply observing a behaviour does not tell us its developmental importance
o Ruth Feldman (2012) points out that ideas like synchrony (and, by implication, reciprocity) simply give names
to patterns of observable caregiver and baby behaviours
▪ These are robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed, but they still may not
be particularly beneficial in understanding child development, as it does not tell us the purpose of
these behaviours
o This means that we cannot be certain from observational research alone that reciprocity and synchrony are
important for a child’s development
• Counterpoint: there is evidence from other lines of research to suggest that early interactions are important. For
example, Isabella et al. (1989) found that achievement of interactional synchrony predicted the development of a
good quality attachment. This means that, on balance, caregiver-infant interaction is likely important in development.
Schaffer’s Stages of Attachment
Key Terms
Stages of Attachment
• Many developmental theories identify a sequence of qualitatively different behaviours linked to specific ages
o In the case of ‘stages of attachment’, qualitatively different infant (baby) behaviours are linked to specific
ages, and all babies go through them in the same order
Multiple Attachments
• Attachments to two or more people
o Most babies appear to develop multiple attachments once they have formed one strong attachment to one of
their carers
Stages of Attachment
Overview
• Rudolf Schaffer and Peggy Emerson (1964) studied the attachment behaviours of babies
o Their findings led them to develop an account of how attachment behaviours change as a baby gets older
• They proposed that there were four identifiable stages of attachment, a sequence which is observed in all
babies/infants
Stage 1: Asocial Stage
• In a baby’s first few weeks of life, its observable behaviour towards humans and inanimate objects is fairly similar,
hence the term ‘asocial’
o However, Schaffer and Emerson did not believe that it is entirely asocial because, even at this stage, babies
show signs that they prefer to be with other people
▪ Babies also tend to show a preference for the company of familiar people and are more easily
comforted by them
• At this stage, the baby is forming bonds with certain people, and these form the basis of later attachments
Stage 2: Indiscriminate Attachment
• From 2 to 7 months, babies start to display more obvious and observable social behaviours
o They now show a clear preference for being with other humans rather than inanimate objects
o They also recognise and prefer the company of familiar people
▪ However, at this stage, babies usually accept cuddles and comfort from any person, hence the term
‘indiscriminate’
• They do not usually show separation anxiety when caregivers leave their presence or stranger anxiety in the presence
of unfamiliar people
Stage 3: Specific Attachment
• From around 7 months, the majority of babies start to display the classic signs of attachment towards one particular
person
o These signs include the following:
Caregiver-Infant Interactions
What is an Attachment?
Notes
• An attachment can be defined as a close two-way emotional bond between two individuals, in which each individual
sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
• Attachment in humans takes a few months to develop
• We can recognise an attachment when people display the following behaviours:
o Proximity
▪ People try to stay physically close to their attachment figures
o Separation distress
▪ People show signs of anxiety when an attachment figure leaves their presence
o Secure-base behaviour
▪ Even when we are independent of our attachment figures, we tend to make regular contact with
them
Babies display secure-base behaviour when they regularly return to their attachment figure while they are playing, for example
Key Terms
Reciprocity
• A description of how two people interact
o Caregiver-infant interaction is reciprocal in that both caregiver and baby respond to each other’s signals and
each elicits a response from the other
Interactional Synchrony
• Caregiver and baby reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and they do this in a coordinated
(synchronised) way
Caregiver-Infant Interactions
Overview
• From the start, babies have meaningful social interactions with their carers
o Psychologists believe that these interactions have important functions for the child’s social development
• In particular, good quality early social interactions are associated with the successful development of attachments
between babies and their caregiver(s)
Reciprocity
Overview
• From birth, babies and their mothers (or other caregivers) spend a lot of time in intense and highly pleasurable
interaction
o An interaction is said to show reciprocity when each person involved in the interaction responds to the other
and elicits a response from them
▪ For example, a caregiver might respond to their baby’s smile by saying something, and this – in turn –
elicits a response from their baby
o This kind of reciprocal interaction is also sometimes called ‘turn-taking’
▪ It is an essential part of any conversation, otherwise people talk over each other
Alert Phases
• Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ in which they signal (e.g. making eye contact) that they are ready for a spell of
interaction
o Research shows that mothers typically pick up on and respond to their baby’s alertness around two thirds of
the time (Feldman and Eidelman, 2007), although this varies according to the skill of the mother and external
factors, such as stress (Finegood et al., 2016)
• From around three months, this interaction tends to become increasingly frequent and more reciprocal
,Active Involvement
• Traditional views of childhood have portrayed babies in a passive role, receiving care from an adult
o However, it seems that babies actually take quite an active role, alongside their caregivers
▪ Both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions, and they appear to take turns in doing so
o T. Berry Brazelton et al. (1975) described this interaction as a ‘dance’ because it is just like a couple’s dance,
where each partner responds to the other person’s moves
Interactional Synchrony
Overview
• Two people are said to be ‘synchronised’ when they carry out the same action simultaneously
• Interactional synchrony can, thus, be defined as ‘the temporal coordination of micro-level social behaviour’
(Feldman, 2007)
o It takes place when caregiver and baby interact in such a way that their actions and emotions mirror the other
Synchrony Begins
• Andrew Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977) observed the beginning of interactional synchrony with caregivers in babies
as young as two weeks old
o An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three distinct gestures
▪ The baby’s response was filmed and labelled by independent observers
o Babies’ expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults more than chance would
predict, i.e. there was a significant association
Importance for Attachment
• It is widely believed among psychologists that interactional synchrony is important for the development of caregiver-
infant attachment
• Russell Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony
o The researchers also assessed the quality of mother-baby attachment
▪ They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-baby
attachment (e.g. the emotional intensity of the relationship)
Evaluation
Filmed Observations
• One strength of the research on this topic is that caregiver-infant interactions are usually filmed in a laboratory
o This means that other activity that might distract a baby can be controlled
o Also, using films means that observations can be recorded and analysed later on
▪ Therefore, it is quite unlikely that the researchers will miss seeing key behaviours
o Furthermore, having filmed interactions means that more than one observer can record data and establish
the inter-rater reliability of observations
o Finally, babies don’t know that they are being observed, meaning that their behaviour does not change in
response to the observation (this is generally the main problem for overt observations)
▪ Therefore, the data collected in such research on this topic is likely to have good reliability and
validity
Difficulty Observing Babies
• One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interaction is that it is hard to interpret a baby’s behaviour in a way that
is likely to be completely accurate
o Young babies lack coordination and much of their bodies are almost immobile
▪ The movements that are being observed are generally just small hand movements or subtle changes
in expression
o It is difficult to be sure, for example, whether a baby is smiling or just passing wind
o It is also difficult to determine what is taking place from the baby’s perspective
▪ For example, we cannot know whether a movement, such as a twitch of the baby’s hand, is random
or triggered by something that the caregiver has done
• This means that we cannot be certain that the behaviours seen in caregiver-infant interactions have any specific or
special meaning
, Developmental Importance
• A further limitation is that simply observing a behaviour does not tell us its developmental importance
o Ruth Feldman (2012) points out that ideas like synchrony (and, by implication, reciprocity) simply give names
to patterns of observable caregiver and baby behaviours
▪ These are robust phenomena in the sense that they can be reliably observed, but they still may not
be particularly beneficial in understanding child development, as it does not tell us the purpose of
these behaviours
o This means that we cannot be certain from observational research alone that reciprocity and synchrony are
important for a child’s development
• Counterpoint: there is evidence from other lines of research to suggest that early interactions are important. For
example, Isabella et al. (1989) found that achievement of interactional synchrony predicted the development of a
good quality attachment. This means that, on balance, caregiver-infant interaction is likely important in development.
Schaffer’s Stages of Attachment
Key Terms
Stages of Attachment
• Many developmental theories identify a sequence of qualitatively different behaviours linked to specific ages
o In the case of ‘stages of attachment’, qualitatively different infant (baby) behaviours are linked to specific
ages, and all babies go through them in the same order
Multiple Attachments
• Attachments to two or more people
o Most babies appear to develop multiple attachments once they have formed one strong attachment to one of
their carers
Stages of Attachment
Overview
• Rudolf Schaffer and Peggy Emerson (1964) studied the attachment behaviours of babies
o Their findings led them to develop an account of how attachment behaviours change as a baby gets older
• They proposed that there were four identifiable stages of attachment, a sequence which is observed in all
babies/infants
Stage 1: Asocial Stage
• In a baby’s first few weeks of life, its observable behaviour towards humans and inanimate objects is fairly similar,
hence the term ‘asocial’
o However, Schaffer and Emerson did not believe that it is entirely asocial because, even at this stage, babies
show signs that they prefer to be with other people
▪ Babies also tend to show a preference for the company of familiar people and are more easily
comforted by them
• At this stage, the baby is forming bonds with certain people, and these form the basis of later attachments
Stage 2: Indiscriminate Attachment
• From 2 to 7 months, babies start to display more obvious and observable social behaviours
o They now show a clear preference for being with other humans rather than inanimate objects
o They also recognise and prefer the company of familiar people
▪ However, at this stage, babies usually accept cuddles and comfort from any person, hence the term
‘indiscriminate’
• They do not usually show separation anxiety when caregivers leave their presence or stranger anxiety in the presence
of unfamiliar people
Stage 3: Specific Attachment
• From around 7 months, the majority of babies start to display the classic signs of attachment towards one particular
person
o These signs include the following:
