D115 Advanced Pathophysiology for the Advanced Practice Nurse –STUDY GUIDE PLUS
ALL POSSIBLE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 2025 Western Governors University
**Read This First** - This Note-Taking Guide is meant to be used as you go through each of the Units in D115. It is
only effective when used with course materials, including all of the Essential Reading material in **course textbook*,
the course videos, the Learning Check questions, and the Unit Quizzes. We highly recommend that you print out this
guide and use it to make your own notes on the course by writing the vocabulary definitions and answering the
questions in your own words. We also recommend that you review your notes every day for all Units to keep the
course material fresh in your mind even as you learn new material in the course.
What are genes composed of and where are they located?
,What are the four types of nitrogenous bases that constitute DNA?
Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Thymine (T). A pairs with T/U; C and G pair together
How are new strands of DNA formed? Note-Taking Guide page 2
DNA replication is based on complementary base pairing, in which a single strand of DNA serves as the template for attracting bases
that form a new strand of DNA
5. How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
DNA polymerase is the primary enzyme involved in replication. It adds bases to the new DNA strand and performs “proofreading”
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
functions.
6. What are some of the most common types of chromosome abnormalities?
How is -the Downs
processSyndrome (Trisomy
of transcription 21) – 1 in 800; mentally retarded, low nasal bridge, protruding tongue, poor muscle
regulated?
Proteins called transcription factors bind age
tone. Increased with maternal greater
to DNA than 35.
sequences called transcription factor binding sites near genes to regulate the
Trisomy 18 as well as the specific tissues in which genes are actively transcribed.
timing -of transcription
- Cri du Crat Syndrome- has a missing gene (DNA deletion) – low birth weight, mental retardation, microencephaly, and cat like cry
7. How are pedigree charts utilized in genetics?
It is an important tool in the analysis of modes of inheritance. Summarizes family relationships and shows which members of a family are
affected by a genetic disease.
8. How is gender determined from a genetic perspective?
Gender is determined embryonically by the presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. Embryos that have a Y
chromosome become males, whereas those lacking the Y chromosome become females. When the Y chromosome lacks
the SRY gene, an XY female can be produced. Similarly, an X chromosome that contains the SRY gene can produce an XX
male.
9. What are some common diseases are considered multifactorial diseases?
HTN, Coronary heart disease, stroke, Diabetes, and some types of cancers.
10. Detail the criteria used to define multifactorial inheritance:
Several criteria are used to define multifactorial inheritance:
a. Recurrence risk becomes higher if more than one family member is affected.
b. The expression of the disease in a proband is more severe, the recurrence risk is higher.
c. Recurrence risk is higher if the proband is of the less commonly affect sex.
d. Recurrence risk for the disease usually decreases rapidly in more remotely related relatives.
e. Prevalence of the disease in a population is the risk for offspring and siblings of proband is √❑ f
11. How do monozygotic and dizygotic twins differ genetically?
, Note-Taking Guide page 3
Monozygotic twins(identical) originate when the developing embryo divides to form two separate but identical embryos. Dizygotic
twins(fraternal) are the result of a double ovulation followed by the fertilization of each egg by a different sperm.
12. How are epigenetic targeted safely and effectively?
To be effective and safe, pharmaceutical strategies for treating epigenetic abnormalities must be targeted to affected genomic
regions.
13. What are some well-known examples of imprinting?
- Prader-Wiili Syndrome- missing a gene- is characterized by short stature, hypotonia, and obesity.
- Angelman Syndrome – missing a gene- characterized by severe mental retardation, seizures, and ataxia
- Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome-over expression of gene- characterized by large size for gestational age, creases on
earlobe, and large tongue.
- Russell-Silver Syndrome.
14. How is the concept of probability applied to and used in genetics?
It is used in genetic counseling.
- Genotype- unique genetic makeup
- Phenotype- outward apparent physical and biochemical attributes
- A nucleotide consists o one deoxyribose molecule, 1 phosphate group, and 1 base
- Somatic cells that don’t have a multiple of 23 chromosomes are aneuploid. Aneuploid is usually the result of nondisjunction.
- In general monosomies cause more severe physical defects than do trisomy’s; illustrating the principle that the loss of
chromosome material has more severe consequences than the duplication of chromosome material.
- Autosomal dominant is a pattern of inheritance in which an affected individual has a copy of a mutant gene.
• 50% chance of passing mutant gene and disorder on to each child.
• Doesn’t skip generations
, Note-Taking Guide page 4
16- Pathological Defense Neutrophils predominate in 1. What are the 3 layers of human defense? What happens during each?
19 Mechanisms and early inflammatory
Physical- protect against damage and infection are composed of tightly
Immunity response; they are first
responders. associated epithelial cells including those of the skin and of the membranous
sheets lining the gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and respiratory tracts.
Mechanical- “washing” the surfaces (sloughing off of dead skin, vomiting,
Macrophages arrive at
urination, coughing).
inflammatory site 24
hours after neutrophils. Biochemical barriers- secrets substances meant to trap of destroy
- T cells microorganisms. (Mucus, sweat, saliva, tears, sebaceous glands, and
earwax).
TNF-a ; IL-1- means an
inflammatory 2. What is the second line of defense and the process?
process is going on. Inflammatory response- rapid and nonspecific, protective response to cellular
injury from any cause. It can occur only in vascularized tissue.
Inflammation causes:
- Vasodilation
- Capillary 3. How do acute and chronic inflammation differ?
permeabili Acute- Short duration, 8-10 days from onset to healing. The three systemic
ty
changes associated with the acute inflammatory response are fever,
- Clotting
leukocytosis, and plasma protein synthesis.
SX: redness,
swelling, drainage, Chronic inflammation- can be a continuation of acute inflammation that last 2
clotting weeks or longer. It can also occur as a distinct process without much
preceding acute inflammation.
4. What are the phases of wound healing and the process that takes
place during each?
Phase 1- Inflammation- includes coagulation and the infiltration of cells
that participate in wound healing, including platelets, neutrophils,
and macrophages.
Phase 2- Proliferation and New Tissue Formation (Reconstruction)- wound
begins to heal. This stage begins 3-4 days after injury and continues for as
long as 2 weeks.
Phase 3- Remodeling and Maturation- phase for recovering normal tissue
ALL POSSIBLE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 2025 Western Governors University
**Read This First** - This Note-Taking Guide is meant to be used as you go through each of the Units in D115. It is
only effective when used with course materials, including all of the Essential Reading material in **course textbook*,
the course videos, the Learning Check questions, and the Unit Quizzes. We highly recommend that you print out this
guide and use it to make your own notes on the course by writing the vocabulary definitions and answering the
questions in your own words. We also recommend that you review your notes every day for all Units to keep the
course material fresh in your mind even as you learn new material in the course.
What are genes composed of and where are they located?
,What are the four types of nitrogenous bases that constitute DNA?
Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Thymine (T). A pairs with T/U; C and G pair together
How are new strands of DNA formed? Note-Taking Guide page 2
DNA replication is based on complementary base pairing, in which a single strand of DNA serves as the template for attracting bases
that form a new strand of DNA
5. How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
DNA polymerase is the primary enzyme involved in replication. It adds bases to the new DNA strand and performs “proofreading”
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
functions.
6. What are some of the most common types of chromosome abnormalities?
How is -the Downs
processSyndrome (Trisomy
of transcription 21) – 1 in 800; mentally retarded, low nasal bridge, protruding tongue, poor muscle
regulated?
Proteins called transcription factors bind age
tone. Increased with maternal greater
to DNA than 35.
sequences called transcription factor binding sites near genes to regulate the
Trisomy 18 as well as the specific tissues in which genes are actively transcribed.
timing -of transcription
- Cri du Crat Syndrome- has a missing gene (DNA deletion) – low birth weight, mental retardation, microencephaly, and cat like cry
7. How are pedigree charts utilized in genetics?
It is an important tool in the analysis of modes of inheritance. Summarizes family relationships and shows which members of a family are
affected by a genetic disease.
8. How is gender determined from a genetic perspective?
Gender is determined embryonically by the presence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome. Embryos that have a Y
chromosome become males, whereas those lacking the Y chromosome become females. When the Y chromosome lacks
the SRY gene, an XY female can be produced. Similarly, an X chromosome that contains the SRY gene can produce an XX
male.
9. What are some common diseases are considered multifactorial diseases?
HTN, Coronary heart disease, stroke, Diabetes, and some types of cancers.
10. Detail the criteria used to define multifactorial inheritance:
Several criteria are used to define multifactorial inheritance:
a. Recurrence risk becomes higher if more than one family member is affected.
b. The expression of the disease in a proband is more severe, the recurrence risk is higher.
c. Recurrence risk is higher if the proband is of the less commonly affect sex.
d. Recurrence risk for the disease usually decreases rapidly in more remotely related relatives.
e. Prevalence of the disease in a population is the risk for offspring and siblings of proband is √❑ f
11. How do monozygotic and dizygotic twins differ genetically?
, Note-Taking Guide page 3
Monozygotic twins(identical) originate when the developing embryo divides to form two separate but identical embryos. Dizygotic
twins(fraternal) are the result of a double ovulation followed by the fertilization of each egg by a different sperm.
12. How are epigenetic targeted safely and effectively?
To be effective and safe, pharmaceutical strategies for treating epigenetic abnormalities must be targeted to affected genomic
regions.
13. What are some well-known examples of imprinting?
- Prader-Wiili Syndrome- missing a gene- is characterized by short stature, hypotonia, and obesity.
- Angelman Syndrome – missing a gene- characterized by severe mental retardation, seizures, and ataxia
- Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome-over expression of gene- characterized by large size for gestational age, creases on
earlobe, and large tongue.
- Russell-Silver Syndrome.
14. How is the concept of probability applied to and used in genetics?
It is used in genetic counseling.
- Genotype- unique genetic makeup
- Phenotype- outward apparent physical and biochemical attributes
- A nucleotide consists o one deoxyribose molecule, 1 phosphate group, and 1 base
- Somatic cells that don’t have a multiple of 23 chromosomes are aneuploid. Aneuploid is usually the result of nondisjunction.
- In general monosomies cause more severe physical defects than do trisomy’s; illustrating the principle that the loss of
chromosome material has more severe consequences than the duplication of chromosome material.
- Autosomal dominant is a pattern of inheritance in which an affected individual has a copy of a mutant gene.
• 50% chance of passing mutant gene and disorder on to each child.
• Doesn’t skip generations
, Note-Taking Guide page 4
16- Pathological Defense Neutrophils predominate in 1. What are the 3 layers of human defense? What happens during each?
19 Mechanisms and early inflammatory
Physical- protect against damage and infection are composed of tightly
Immunity response; they are first
responders. associated epithelial cells including those of the skin and of the membranous
sheets lining the gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and respiratory tracts.
Mechanical- “washing” the surfaces (sloughing off of dead skin, vomiting,
Macrophages arrive at
urination, coughing).
inflammatory site 24
hours after neutrophils. Biochemical barriers- secrets substances meant to trap of destroy
- T cells microorganisms. (Mucus, sweat, saliva, tears, sebaceous glands, and
earwax).
TNF-a ; IL-1- means an
inflammatory 2. What is the second line of defense and the process?
process is going on. Inflammatory response- rapid and nonspecific, protective response to cellular
injury from any cause. It can occur only in vascularized tissue.
Inflammation causes:
- Vasodilation
- Capillary 3. How do acute and chronic inflammation differ?
permeabili Acute- Short duration, 8-10 days from onset to healing. The three systemic
ty
changes associated with the acute inflammatory response are fever,
- Clotting
leukocytosis, and plasma protein synthesis.
SX: redness,
swelling, drainage, Chronic inflammation- can be a continuation of acute inflammation that last 2
clotting weeks or longer. It can also occur as a distinct process without much
preceding acute inflammation.
4. What are the phases of wound healing and the process that takes
place during each?
Phase 1- Inflammation- includes coagulation and the infiltration of cells
that participate in wound healing, including platelets, neutrophils,
and macrophages.
Phase 2- Proliferation and New Tissue Formation (Reconstruction)- wound
begins to heal. This stage begins 3-4 days after injury and continues for as
long as 2 weeks.
Phase 3- Remodeling and Maturation- phase for recovering normal tissue
