Our approach to bioethics
- What is meant by an ‘ethico-onto-epistemology’?
A way bioethics can be approached is by ethico-onto-epistemology. In this
neologism, several of the main subdisciplines in philosophy may be
recognized: ontology, epistemology, and ethics.
Ontology
Ontology refers to our conceptualization of reality and of the
phenomena that are part of reality. Specific concepts we take for
granted in everyday life are not straightforward upon closer
consideration. Think, for example, about ‘curing a disease’. What do
we actually mean when we call something a disease? Do we mean
that there is a specific biological cause, such as in the case of
influenza? Do we mean that a particular person significantly
deviates from the statistical mean, such as with high blood
pressure? Does this relate to the way people typically function?
Epistemology and philosophy of science
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with how
we know things. The philosophy of science, which is considered by
some a subbranch of epistemology, critically reflects on many
questions in science and tries to clarify these. Think, for example,
about the question of scientific knowledge. When is knowledge
scientific? Is a statement scientific if we have sufficient empirical
proof? If we are thinking about the question ‘what is reality made
of?’, for example, we often stumble upon concepts that we may
never be able to prove empirically. Think about string theory in
physics. We may use strings to explain certain observable
phenomena in reality, but we will probably never be able to observe
the strings themselves empirically. Is string theory science, or is this
the place where the distinction between philosophy and exact
science blurs? Philosophers of science and physicists can think
together about scientific practice and what counts as scientific fact
in light of these new theories.
Another common assumption pertains to science and scientific
knowledge as progressing linearly and cumulatively. Philosophers of
science have investigated this idea and have tried to consider
whether and how scientific progress is possible. Thomas Kuhn, a
philosopher of science, challenged this widely held view. Kuhn
argued that scientific development is not a smooth, continuous
process but rather occurs through revolutions or paradigm shifts.
While there are factors that primarily inform science from the
‘outside’ (e.g. social and political influences; we have historically
been, for example, more interested in male health than in women’s
1
, health), values also inform scientific decision-making in the lab. A
famous example of the ‘internal’ influence of values on science is
the argument from inductive risk, which suggests that in conditions
of uncertainty— endemic to all science—the acceptance or rejection
of a particular hypothesis always involves the risk of getting it
wrong. Whether we accept or reject a hypothesis thus not only
depends on the data but also on our weighing of the consequences
of error. A factory making lightbulbs can, for example, tolerate a 5%
error rate; whereas, in cancer diagnostics, we might want to be
more conservative. Therefore, while scientists generally agree upon
a specific threshold for statistical significance (often p<0.05)—i.e.
for the acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis—the judgement
should depend on how we value the consequences of getting it
wrong.
Also, the inclusion of diverse standpoints is not only morally
favourable but can also lead to better, more objective science
(standpoint epistemology).
Ethics
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with morality on different
levels. There are two non-normative branches. In descriptive ethics
or moral sciences, morality is approached from social sciences,
psychology, and cultural anthropology. For example, when
discussing care ethics, we will talk about psychologists Lawrence
Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan, who have studied the different stages of
moral development in children. Metaethics is a branch of ethics that
investigates why human beings are moral and how they are moral.
Philosophers look at history, the social sciences, or biology to
understand why human beings have moral sensitivity. For example,
we can ask ourselves if it is sufficient to feel guilty to be moral or
whether you must have a rational conviction that you have done
something wrong. Is morality a matter of emotions or reason?
Metaethics also studies concepts such as good and evil and justice.
Ethics also has two normative branches. In general normative ethics,
philosophers think about which kind of behaviour is good or bad.
Ethicists try to lay down the basic principles of morality in rational
terms and look for an encompassing moral theory. In applied ethics,
these questions are asked in specific contexts. Specific moral
dilemmas from specific subdomains of human action are analyzed
and specified. For example, in business ethics, we can determine the
extent of a company’s responsibility concerning the well-being of its
employees and their families. In media ethics, we investigate
journalists’ duties towards those interviewed. Bioethics is also a
form of applied ethics.
- What do Thomas Hobbes and Frans de Waal say about the origins of
morality?
2
- What is meant by an ‘ethico-onto-epistemology’?
A way bioethics can be approached is by ethico-onto-epistemology. In this
neologism, several of the main subdisciplines in philosophy may be
recognized: ontology, epistemology, and ethics.
Ontology
Ontology refers to our conceptualization of reality and of the
phenomena that are part of reality. Specific concepts we take for
granted in everyday life are not straightforward upon closer
consideration. Think, for example, about ‘curing a disease’. What do
we actually mean when we call something a disease? Do we mean
that there is a specific biological cause, such as in the case of
influenza? Do we mean that a particular person significantly
deviates from the statistical mean, such as with high blood
pressure? Does this relate to the way people typically function?
Epistemology and philosophy of science
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with how
we know things. The philosophy of science, which is considered by
some a subbranch of epistemology, critically reflects on many
questions in science and tries to clarify these. Think, for example,
about the question of scientific knowledge. When is knowledge
scientific? Is a statement scientific if we have sufficient empirical
proof? If we are thinking about the question ‘what is reality made
of?’, for example, we often stumble upon concepts that we may
never be able to prove empirically. Think about string theory in
physics. We may use strings to explain certain observable
phenomena in reality, but we will probably never be able to observe
the strings themselves empirically. Is string theory science, or is this
the place where the distinction between philosophy and exact
science blurs? Philosophers of science and physicists can think
together about scientific practice and what counts as scientific fact
in light of these new theories.
Another common assumption pertains to science and scientific
knowledge as progressing linearly and cumulatively. Philosophers of
science have investigated this idea and have tried to consider
whether and how scientific progress is possible. Thomas Kuhn, a
philosopher of science, challenged this widely held view. Kuhn
argued that scientific development is not a smooth, continuous
process but rather occurs through revolutions or paradigm shifts.
While there are factors that primarily inform science from the
‘outside’ (e.g. social and political influences; we have historically
been, for example, more interested in male health than in women’s
1
, health), values also inform scientific decision-making in the lab. A
famous example of the ‘internal’ influence of values on science is
the argument from inductive risk, which suggests that in conditions
of uncertainty— endemic to all science—the acceptance or rejection
of a particular hypothesis always involves the risk of getting it
wrong. Whether we accept or reject a hypothesis thus not only
depends on the data but also on our weighing of the consequences
of error. A factory making lightbulbs can, for example, tolerate a 5%
error rate; whereas, in cancer diagnostics, we might want to be
more conservative. Therefore, while scientists generally agree upon
a specific threshold for statistical significance (often p<0.05)—i.e.
for the acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis—the judgement
should depend on how we value the consequences of getting it
wrong.
Also, the inclusion of diverse standpoints is not only morally
favourable but can also lead to better, more objective science
(standpoint epistemology).
Ethics
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with morality on different
levels. There are two non-normative branches. In descriptive ethics
or moral sciences, morality is approached from social sciences,
psychology, and cultural anthropology. For example, when
discussing care ethics, we will talk about psychologists Lawrence
Kohlberg and Carol Gilligan, who have studied the different stages of
moral development in children. Metaethics is a branch of ethics that
investigates why human beings are moral and how they are moral.
Philosophers look at history, the social sciences, or biology to
understand why human beings have moral sensitivity. For example,
we can ask ourselves if it is sufficient to feel guilty to be moral or
whether you must have a rational conviction that you have done
something wrong. Is morality a matter of emotions or reason?
Metaethics also studies concepts such as good and evil and justice.
Ethics also has two normative branches. In general normative ethics,
philosophers think about which kind of behaviour is good or bad.
Ethicists try to lay down the basic principles of morality in rational
terms and look for an encompassing moral theory. In applied ethics,
these questions are asked in specific contexts. Specific moral
dilemmas from specific subdomains of human action are analyzed
and specified. For example, in business ethics, we can determine the
extent of a company’s responsibility concerning the well-being of its
employees and their families. In media ethics, we investigate
journalists’ duties towards those interviewed. Bioethics is also a
form of applied ethics.
- What do Thomas Hobbes and Frans de Waal say about the origins of
morality?
2
