SEKSUEEL GEWELD – SLACHTOFFERS EN DADERS
PROF. DR. LUC GIJS
2e master Seksuologie
1
,Hoofdstuk 1: Inleiding ........................................................................................................................6
Hoofdstuk 2: Definities en prevalentie van seksueel geweld ................................................................8
1. Prevalentiecijfers .....................................................................................................................8
1.1. Klopt dat wel, deze cijfers? ..............................................................................................8
1.2. Variatie in de cijfers.........................................................................................................9
2. Definitie van seksueel geweld..................................................................................................9
2.1. DSM-5 (2013) over seksueel geweld ................................................................................9
Intermezzo: Seksuele agressie door heteroseksuele mannen – De invloed van vijandige mannelijkheid
en alcohol – gastcollege door Axelle Bavré ....................................................................................... 11
1. Deel 1: Hostile Masculinity (HM) of vijandige mannelijkheid ............................................... 11
1.1. Definiëring en ontstaansgeschiedenis ............................................................................. 11
1.2. Mannelijkheid in wetenschappelijke literatuur................................................................ 11
1.2. Hoe ontstaat vijandige mannelijkheid? ........................................................................... 12
1.3. Componenten van hostile masculinity ............................................................................ 12
1.4. Overlap met hypermasculinity ....................................................................................... 12
1.4.1. Hoe ontstaat hypermasculinity? .............................................................................. 12
1.4.2. Hypermasculinity vs. Hostile masculinity ............................................................... 13
1.5. Onderzoek over Hostile Masculiniaty en seksuele agressie ‘perpetration’ (SAP) ............ 13
1.6. Samenvatting ................................................................................................................. 13
2. Deel 2: Alcohol ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.1. Speelt alcohol een grote rol in de incidentie van seksueel geweld ................................... 13
2.2. Heeft iedere man die alcohol drinkt een grotere kans op het stellen van seksueel agressief
gedrag 14
2.3. Gebruiken daders onder invloed van alcohol andere strategieën om tot seks te komen dan
nuchtere daders?........................................................................................................................ 14
2.4. Wat met alcohol en andere plegers van seksuele agressie? .............................................. 14
2.4.1. Alcohol en seksueel geweld door vrouwen ............................................................. 15
2.4.2. Alcohol en SAP, een samenvatting ......................................................................... 15
Hoofdstuk 3: Theorieën over seksueel geweld ................................................................................... 16
1. Indeling verschillende theorieën ............................................................................................ 16
Multifactoriële modellen: evolutionair psychologisch standpunt ................................................ 18
1. Model 1 – Malamuth’s confluence model .............................................................................. 18
1.1. Uitbreiden van Malamuth’s confluence model ............................................................... 21
1.1.1. Model 2 – Knight & Sims-Knight (2011): integratief model ................................... 21
1.1.2. Model 3 – Abbey (2011): vereenvoudigde weergave .................................................. 22
1.2. Kanttekening bij Malamuth............................................................................................ 24
2. Model 4 – Barbara Smuts (1996) ........................................................................................... 24
Multifactoriële modellen: sociaal-cognitief standpunt ................................................................ 26
2
,3. Model 5 – Marshall & Barbaree (1990) ................................................................................. 26
3.1. Diagnostische en klinische toepassingen ........................................................................ 26
3.1.1. Verschillen en gelijkenissen tussen Marshal en Barabee vs Malamuth .................... 27
3.1.2. Cognitief gedragstherapeutische programma’s voor ‘sex offenders’ gebaseerd
op M & B .............................................................................................................................. 27
3.1.3. Model 6 – Terugvalproces volgens Pithers et al. (1983). ......................................... 27
4. Model 7 – Geïntegreerde theorie van seksueel gewelddadig gedrag – Ward et al (2016)......... 28
Feministisch standpunt .............................................................................................................. 29
5. Feministische gezichtspunten ................................................................................................ 29
5.1. Model 8 – Susan Brownmiller........................................................................................ 29
5.2. Model 9 – Model van Dekeseredy .................................................................................. 29
5.3. Model 10 – Diane Russel (1988) .................................................................................... 31
5.4. Model 11 – Grubbs & Kraus (2021) ............................................................................... 32
5.5. Model 12 – Gavey & Senn (2014): algemene consensus over het feministisch perspectief .
...................................................................................................................................... 33
5.6. Model 13 – mcphail (2016): feministisch perspectief ..................................................... 34
Etiologische modellen ............................................................................................................... 35
6. Theorie 14 – Finkelhor’s 4 factoren model bij seksueel misbruik van kinderen ...................... 35
7. Theorie 15 – Seto’s geactualiseerde motivatie-facilitatie model van seksueel gewelddadig /
grensoverschrijdend gedrag ........................................................................................................... 35
Behandelingsgerichte modellen ................................................................................................. 37
8. Theorie 16 – Ward (2009): The Risk Need model of offender Rehabilitation (R-N-R) ........... 37
9. Theorie 17 - Ward (2009) Models of offender rehabilitation: the good lives model and the risk-
need-responsivitiy model .............................................................................................................. 37
9.1. Ward’s Good Lives Model. ............................................................................................ 37
Hechtingsstijlen ........................................................................................................................ 39
10. Theorie 18 – Marshall (1989): Rol van hechtingsstijlen...................................................... 39
Typologieën – typologische benadering ..................................................................................... 40
11. Theorie 19 – Typologie van Groth voor verkrachters en kindermisbruik............................. 40
11.1. Wat voor type plegers van seksueel geweld bestaan er? .............................................. 40
11.2. Bedenkingen .............................................................................................................. 40
12. Theorie 20 – Typologie van Prentky & Knight ................................................................... 41
12.1. Vier clusters van beïnvloedende types ........................................................................ 41
Procesmodellen ......................................................................................................................... 43
13. Theorie 21 – Both (2004): Zelfregulatie als sleutel ............................................................. 43
14. Model 22 – Zelfregulatiemodel van Stinson, Sales en Becker (2008).................................. 43
15. Opmerkingen over theorieën .............................................................................................. 44
15.1. Seksueel geweld in het leger ...................................................................................... 44
3
, 15.1.1. Snyder et al. ........................................................................................................... 44
15.1.2. Nichter et al. .......................................................................................................... 44
15.1.3. Bourke ................................................................................................................... 45
15.2. Psychiatrische stoornissen .......................................................................................... 45
15.2.1. Hoertel: Seksueel geweld en psychiatrische co-morbiditeit: Hebt u ooit seksueel
geweld gepleegd in uw hele leven? ........................................................................................ 45
15.2.2. Smid ...................................................................................................................... 45
15.2.3. Belangrijke kanttekening ........................................................................................ 45
15.2.4. Moulden ................................................................................................................ 46
Hoofdstuk 4: Diagnostiek en behandeling ......................................................................................... 47
1. Wat is de klassieke diagnostiek? ............................................................................................ 47
1.1. De ideale diagnostiek ..................................................................................................... 47
1.2. De gangbare diagnostiek? .............................................................................................. 47
2. Diagnostiek van daders van seksueel geweld – enkele facetten .............................................. 48
3. Twee factoren die altijd terugkomen bij meta-analyses. ......................................................... 49
3.1. Seksuele deviantie ......................................................................................................... 49
3.1.1. Meten van seksuele deviantie: ................................................................................ 49
3.2. Psychopathie.................................................................................................................. 49
3.2.1. Model 23 – Claes et al. (2015): 4-factoren model ................................................... 49
3.2.2. Meten van psychopathie ......................................................................................... 50
Hoofdstuk 5: Risicofactoren & risicotaxatie ...................................................................................... 51
1. Soorten risicofactoren............................................................................................................ 51
2. Welke risicofactoren zijn dan empirisch gevalideerd? ............................................................ 51
2.1. Theorie 24 – Mann en collega’s: risicofactoren .............................................................. 51
3. Vormen van risicotaxatie ....................................................................................................... 52
3.1. Theorie 26 – Stable 2007 ............................................................................................... 53
Hoofdstuk 6: Effectiviteit van de behandeling ................................................................................... 54
1. Belangrijke ontwikkelingen in het forensische veld: .............................................................. 54
1.1. Theorie 27 – Borduin (2011): Multisystemische therapie bij adolescenten ...................... 54
1.2. Theorie 28 – Gunst et al: Emotie-regulatie ..................................................................... 55
1.3. Trauma-informed treatment of sex offenders .................................................................. 55
2. Zijn behandelingen effectief?................................................................................................. 56
2.1. 1989: Furby, L., Weinrott, M.R., & Blackshaw, L. (1989). Sex offender recidivism.
Psychological Bulletin, 105, 3-30. ............................................................................................. 56
2.2. 1991: Marshall, W.L., et al. (1991). Treatment outcomes with sex offenders. Clinical
Psychology Review, 11: 465-485 .............................................................................................. 56
2.3. 2008: Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2008). Does sexual offender treatment work? A
systematic review of outcome evaluations. Psicothema, 20, (1), 10-19. ...................................... 56
4
, 2.4. 2009: Hanson, R.K., Bourgon, G., Helmus, L., & Hodgson, S. (2009). The principles of
effective correctional treatment also apply to sexual offenders: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice
and Behavior, 36, 865-891......................................................................................................... 57
2.5. 2015: Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2015). The effects of sexual offender treatment on
recidivism: An international meta-analysis of sound quality evaluations. Journal of Experimental
Criminology, 11, 597–630. ........................................................................................................ 58
2.6. 2019: Gannon, T.A., et al. (2019). Does specialized psychological treatment for offending
reduce recidivism? A meta-analysis examining staff and program variables as predictors of
treatment effectiveness. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 73, 101752 ...................................... 59
2.7. 2023: Holper, L. , et al. (in press). Moderators of sexual recidivism as indicator of
treatment effectiveness in persons with sexual offense histories: An updated meta-analysis.
Sexual Abuse. ........................................................................................................................... 59
Hoofdstuk 7: Preventie...................................................................................................................... 60
1. Welke factoren maken een verschil ........................................................................................ 60
2. Welke programma’s zijn effectief? ........................................................................................ 61
3. Toekomstige vooruitgang ...................................................................................................... 61
5
PROF. DR. LUC GIJS
2e master Seksuologie
1
,Hoofdstuk 1: Inleiding ........................................................................................................................6
Hoofdstuk 2: Definities en prevalentie van seksueel geweld ................................................................8
1. Prevalentiecijfers .....................................................................................................................8
1.1. Klopt dat wel, deze cijfers? ..............................................................................................8
1.2. Variatie in de cijfers.........................................................................................................9
2. Definitie van seksueel geweld..................................................................................................9
2.1. DSM-5 (2013) over seksueel geweld ................................................................................9
Intermezzo: Seksuele agressie door heteroseksuele mannen – De invloed van vijandige mannelijkheid
en alcohol – gastcollege door Axelle Bavré ....................................................................................... 11
1. Deel 1: Hostile Masculinity (HM) of vijandige mannelijkheid ............................................... 11
1.1. Definiëring en ontstaansgeschiedenis ............................................................................. 11
1.2. Mannelijkheid in wetenschappelijke literatuur................................................................ 11
1.2. Hoe ontstaat vijandige mannelijkheid? ........................................................................... 12
1.3. Componenten van hostile masculinity ............................................................................ 12
1.4. Overlap met hypermasculinity ....................................................................................... 12
1.4.1. Hoe ontstaat hypermasculinity? .............................................................................. 12
1.4.2. Hypermasculinity vs. Hostile masculinity ............................................................... 13
1.5. Onderzoek over Hostile Masculiniaty en seksuele agressie ‘perpetration’ (SAP) ............ 13
1.6. Samenvatting ................................................................................................................. 13
2. Deel 2: Alcohol ..................................................................................................................... 13
2.1. Speelt alcohol een grote rol in de incidentie van seksueel geweld ................................... 13
2.2. Heeft iedere man die alcohol drinkt een grotere kans op het stellen van seksueel agressief
gedrag 14
2.3. Gebruiken daders onder invloed van alcohol andere strategieën om tot seks te komen dan
nuchtere daders?........................................................................................................................ 14
2.4. Wat met alcohol en andere plegers van seksuele agressie? .............................................. 14
2.4.1. Alcohol en seksueel geweld door vrouwen ............................................................. 15
2.4.2. Alcohol en SAP, een samenvatting ......................................................................... 15
Hoofdstuk 3: Theorieën over seksueel geweld ................................................................................... 16
1. Indeling verschillende theorieën ............................................................................................ 16
Multifactoriële modellen: evolutionair psychologisch standpunt ................................................ 18
1. Model 1 – Malamuth’s confluence model .............................................................................. 18
1.1. Uitbreiden van Malamuth’s confluence model ............................................................... 21
1.1.1. Model 2 – Knight & Sims-Knight (2011): integratief model ................................... 21
1.1.2. Model 3 – Abbey (2011): vereenvoudigde weergave .................................................. 22
1.2. Kanttekening bij Malamuth............................................................................................ 24
2. Model 4 – Barbara Smuts (1996) ........................................................................................... 24
Multifactoriële modellen: sociaal-cognitief standpunt ................................................................ 26
2
,3. Model 5 – Marshall & Barbaree (1990) ................................................................................. 26
3.1. Diagnostische en klinische toepassingen ........................................................................ 26
3.1.1. Verschillen en gelijkenissen tussen Marshal en Barabee vs Malamuth .................... 27
3.1.2. Cognitief gedragstherapeutische programma’s voor ‘sex offenders’ gebaseerd
op M & B .............................................................................................................................. 27
3.1.3. Model 6 – Terugvalproces volgens Pithers et al. (1983). ......................................... 27
4. Model 7 – Geïntegreerde theorie van seksueel gewelddadig gedrag – Ward et al (2016)......... 28
Feministisch standpunt .............................................................................................................. 29
5. Feministische gezichtspunten ................................................................................................ 29
5.1. Model 8 – Susan Brownmiller........................................................................................ 29
5.2. Model 9 – Model van Dekeseredy .................................................................................. 29
5.3. Model 10 – Diane Russel (1988) .................................................................................... 31
5.4. Model 11 – Grubbs & Kraus (2021) ............................................................................... 32
5.5. Model 12 – Gavey & Senn (2014): algemene consensus over het feministisch perspectief .
...................................................................................................................................... 33
5.6. Model 13 – mcphail (2016): feministisch perspectief ..................................................... 34
Etiologische modellen ............................................................................................................... 35
6. Theorie 14 – Finkelhor’s 4 factoren model bij seksueel misbruik van kinderen ...................... 35
7. Theorie 15 – Seto’s geactualiseerde motivatie-facilitatie model van seksueel gewelddadig /
grensoverschrijdend gedrag ........................................................................................................... 35
Behandelingsgerichte modellen ................................................................................................. 37
8. Theorie 16 – Ward (2009): The Risk Need model of offender Rehabilitation (R-N-R) ........... 37
9. Theorie 17 - Ward (2009) Models of offender rehabilitation: the good lives model and the risk-
need-responsivitiy model .............................................................................................................. 37
9.1. Ward’s Good Lives Model. ............................................................................................ 37
Hechtingsstijlen ........................................................................................................................ 39
10. Theorie 18 – Marshall (1989): Rol van hechtingsstijlen...................................................... 39
Typologieën – typologische benadering ..................................................................................... 40
11. Theorie 19 – Typologie van Groth voor verkrachters en kindermisbruik............................. 40
11.1. Wat voor type plegers van seksueel geweld bestaan er? .............................................. 40
11.2. Bedenkingen .............................................................................................................. 40
12. Theorie 20 – Typologie van Prentky & Knight ................................................................... 41
12.1. Vier clusters van beïnvloedende types ........................................................................ 41
Procesmodellen ......................................................................................................................... 43
13. Theorie 21 – Both (2004): Zelfregulatie als sleutel ............................................................. 43
14. Model 22 – Zelfregulatiemodel van Stinson, Sales en Becker (2008).................................. 43
15. Opmerkingen over theorieën .............................................................................................. 44
15.1. Seksueel geweld in het leger ...................................................................................... 44
3
, 15.1.1. Snyder et al. ........................................................................................................... 44
15.1.2. Nichter et al. .......................................................................................................... 44
15.1.3. Bourke ................................................................................................................... 45
15.2. Psychiatrische stoornissen .......................................................................................... 45
15.2.1. Hoertel: Seksueel geweld en psychiatrische co-morbiditeit: Hebt u ooit seksueel
geweld gepleegd in uw hele leven? ........................................................................................ 45
15.2.2. Smid ...................................................................................................................... 45
15.2.3. Belangrijke kanttekening ........................................................................................ 45
15.2.4. Moulden ................................................................................................................ 46
Hoofdstuk 4: Diagnostiek en behandeling ......................................................................................... 47
1. Wat is de klassieke diagnostiek? ............................................................................................ 47
1.1. De ideale diagnostiek ..................................................................................................... 47
1.2. De gangbare diagnostiek? .............................................................................................. 47
2. Diagnostiek van daders van seksueel geweld – enkele facetten .............................................. 48
3. Twee factoren die altijd terugkomen bij meta-analyses. ......................................................... 49
3.1. Seksuele deviantie ......................................................................................................... 49
3.1.1. Meten van seksuele deviantie: ................................................................................ 49
3.2. Psychopathie.................................................................................................................. 49
3.2.1. Model 23 – Claes et al. (2015): 4-factoren model ................................................... 49
3.2.2. Meten van psychopathie ......................................................................................... 50
Hoofdstuk 5: Risicofactoren & risicotaxatie ...................................................................................... 51
1. Soorten risicofactoren............................................................................................................ 51
2. Welke risicofactoren zijn dan empirisch gevalideerd? ............................................................ 51
2.1. Theorie 24 – Mann en collega’s: risicofactoren .............................................................. 51
3. Vormen van risicotaxatie ....................................................................................................... 52
3.1. Theorie 26 – Stable 2007 ............................................................................................... 53
Hoofdstuk 6: Effectiviteit van de behandeling ................................................................................... 54
1. Belangrijke ontwikkelingen in het forensische veld: .............................................................. 54
1.1. Theorie 27 – Borduin (2011): Multisystemische therapie bij adolescenten ...................... 54
1.2. Theorie 28 – Gunst et al: Emotie-regulatie ..................................................................... 55
1.3. Trauma-informed treatment of sex offenders .................................................................. 55
2. Zijn behandelingen effectief?................................................................................................. 56
2.1. 1989: Furby, L., Weinrott, M.R., & Blackshaw, L. (1989). Sex offender recidivism.
Psychological Bulletin, 105, 3-30. ............................................................................................. 56
2.2. 1991: Marshall, W.L., et al. (1991). Treatment outcomes with sex offenders. Clinical
Psychology Review, 11: 465-485 .............................................................................................. 56
2.3. 2008: Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2008). Does sexual offender treatment work? A
systematic review of outcome evaluations. Psicothema, 20, (1), 10-19. ...................................... 56
4
, 2.4. 2009: Hanson, R.K., Bourgon, G., Helmus, L., & Hodgson, S. (2009). The principles of
effective correctional treatment also apply to sexual offenders: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice
and Behavior, 36, 865-891......................................................................................................... 57
2.5. 2015: Schmucker, M., & Lösel, F. (2015). The effects of sexual offender treatment on
recidivism: An international meta-analysis of sound quality evaluations. Journal of Experimental
Criminology, 11, 597–630. ........................................................................................................ 58
2.6. 2019: Gannon, T.A., et al. (2019). Does specialized psychological treatment for offending
reduce recidivism? A meta-analysis examining staff and program variables as predictors of
treatment effectiveness. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 73, 101752 ...................................... 59
2.7. 2023: Holper, L. , et al. (in press). Moderators of sexual recidivism as indicator of
treatment effectiveness in persons with sexual offense histories: An updated meta-analysis.
Sexual Abuse. ........................................................................................................................... 59
Hoofdstuk 7: Preventie...................................................................................................................... 60
1. Welke factoren maken een verschil ........................................................................................ 60
2. Welke programma’s zijn effectief? ........................................................................................ 61
3. Toekomstige vooruitgang ...................................................................................................... 61
5
