3.1.4.5 Human impacts on cold environments
Fragility of cold environments
Environmental fragility describes a sensitive environment, that is on the edge of survival,
where even the slightest change can have significant effects.
Some ecosystems can cope with wide variations in climatic conditions and changes in
patterns of land use, whereas others are much more sensitive to any environmental change.
The effects of small shifts in rainfall patterns or ambient temperatures can often do great
harm to fragile environments and these effects can act as indicators of imminent threats
elsewhere.
Natural events can precipitate sudden changes. Increasingly, however, the anthropogenic
effects of human activity – intensive agriculture, deforestation, urbanisation, etc. – are
causing specialised habitats to change, shrink, and become fragmented to the extent that
they may no longer be self-sustainable. In addition, the accidental or deliberate introduction
of invasive non-native species can also severely affect communities of indigenous species.
There are several reasons why cold environments are fragile:
• Slow ecosystem development and highly specialised habitats – plants and animals
have had to adapt to the lack of daylight and harsh climatic conditions of strong,
drying winds, lack of rainfall, the presence of permafrost and the short growing
seasons. Ecosystems are surprisingly diverse but they take a very long time to
become established.
• Sensitive to change – plants and animals that have adapted to particular
environmental conditions are very sensitive to change. Scientists are extremely
concerned about the possible consequences of climate change in Arctic and sub-
Arctic regions.
• Once damaged, an ecosystem can take a very long time to recover or it might never
recover. It is said that just treading on tundra vegetation can result in the footprint
remaining for a decade.
Human impacts on fragile cold environments
Oil spills in Siberia, Russia
The arctic holds extensive and highly valuable reserves of oil
and natural gas. The United States Geological Survey
estimates that over 87% of the Arctic’s oil and natural gas
resource (about 360 billion barrels oil equivalent) is located
in seven huge arctic basins, two of which are located in
Siberia, Russia.
Oil spills are not uncommon in Russia. Oil contaminates the soil, kills all plants that grow in it
and destroys habitats for mammals and birds. The Russian town of Usinsk, close to the arctic
, circle, regularly experiences oil spills. A pipeline break in Usinsk in 1994 gushed up more
than 60,000 tonnes of oil, one of the biggest spills ever on land.
Often the cause of these spills is rusty pipelines and old wells, the valves of which ooze
thick, toxic, inflammable crude oil, which forms lakes on the tundra and pollutes rivers.
Pipeline infrastructure has deteriorated, and with fines inexpensive, oil companies find it
more profitable to patch up holes and pour sand on spills – or nothing at all – than invest in
quality infrastructure and clean-ups, so the problem gets progressively worse.
According to Greenpeace, the Russian oil industry spills more than 30 million barrels on land
each year, and every 18 months more than four million barrels spews into the Arctic Ocean,
poisoning the water, killing wildlife and destroying the livelihoods of local indigenous
people. Locals in the villages around Usinsk complain that the oil pollutes their drinking
water, contaminates the river fish and reindeer they depend on for food and causes chronic
health conditions.
Tourism in alpine environments
Tourism in the European Alps has increased significantly in recent years due to higher levels
of wealth and increased mobility and leisure time. According to the World Wide Fund for
Nature, 120 million people visit the alps each year.
The most destructive human impacts are associated with
the ski industry. The Carpathian Mountains in Bulgaria are
widely acknowledged as one of Europe’s last wilderness
areas. The mountains, with some of the last remaining old-
growth forests in Europe, are home to two-thirds of the
continent’s populations of brown bears, wolves and lynx.
The highly lucrative ski industry has led to illegal ski
developments here, with scant regard for environmental
conservation. Forests have been stripped to make way for
ski developments, and infrastructure, resulting in habitat
loss or fragmentation (where a large expanse of habitat is
transformed into a number of smaller patches of smaller total area isolated from each other
by a matrix of habitats unlike the original). Deforestation also makes the ground surface too
hard to absorb water, which can cause flooding, erosion, and mud avalanches. Trees also
prevent avalanches, and their removal increases the avalanche risk in winter.
Modern adventure sports (mountain biking, canyoning or paragliding) and some motor-
based leisure activities are now entering areas previously untouched by tourism. They are
causing a major disturbance to wildlife in the Alps and pose a very direct threat to
biodiversity. Many animals, even if they don’t hibernate, adopt a slowed-down pace during
the winter to conserve energy, and skiers risk disrupting the animals’ natural rhythms and
even killing them if they are startled or forced to flee.
Fragility of cold environments
Environmental fragility describes a sensitive environment, that is on the edge of survival,
where even the slightest change can have significant effects.
Some ecosystems can cope with wide variations in climatic conditions and changes in
patterns of land use, whereas others are much more sensitive to any environmental change.
The effects of small shifts in rainfall patterns or ambient temperatures can often do great
harm to fragile environments and these effects can act as indicators of imminent threats
elsewhere.
Natural events can precipitate sudden changes. Increasingly, however, the anthropogenic
effects of human activity – intensive agriculture, deforestation, urbanisation, etc. – are
causing specialised habitats to change, shrink, and become fragmented to the extent that
they may no longer be self-sustainable. In addition, the accidental or deliberate introduction
of invasive non-native species can also severely affect communities of indigenous species.
There are several reasons why cold environments are fragile:
• Slow ecosystem development and highly specialised habitats – plants and animals
have had to adapt to the lack of daylight and harsh climatic conditions of strong,
drying winds, lack of rainfall, the presence of permafrost and the short growing
seasons. Ecosystems are surprisingly diverse but they take a very long time to
become established.
• Sensitive to change – plants and animals that have adapted to particular
environmental conditions are very sensitive to change. Scientists are extremely
concerned about the possible consequences of climate change in Arctic and sub-
Arctic regions.
• Once damaged, an ecosystem can take a very long time to recover or it might never
recover. It is said that just treading on tundra vegetation can result in the footprint
remaining for a decade.
Human impacts on fragile cold environments
Oil spills in Siberia, Russia
The arctic holds extensive and highly valuable reserves of oil
and natural gas. The United States Geological Survey
estimates that over 87% of the Arctic’s oil and natural gas
resource (about 360 billion barrels oil equivalent) is located
in seven huge arctic basins, two of which are located in
Siberia, Russia.
Oil spills are not uncommon in Russia. Oil contaminates the soil, kills all plants that grow in it
and destroys habitats for mammals and birds. The Russian town of Usinsk, close to the arctic
, circle, regularly experiences oil spills. A pipeline break in Usinsk in 1994 gushed up more
than 60,000 tonnes of oil, one of the biggest spills ever on land.
Often the cause of these spills is rusty pipelines and old wells, the valves of which ooze
thick, toxic, inflammable crude oil, which forms lakes on the tundra and pollutes rivers.
Pipeline infrastructure has deteriorated, and with fines inexpensive, oil companies find it
more profitable to patch up holes and pour sand on spills – or nothing at all – than invest in
quality infrastructure and clean-ups, so the problem gets progressively worse.
According to Greenpeace, the Russian oil industry spills more than 30 million barrels on land
each year, and every 18 months more than four million barrels spews into the Arctic Ocean,
poisoning the water, killing wildlife and destroying the livelihoods of local indigenous
people. Locals in the villages around Usinsk complain that the oil pollutes their drinking
water, contaminates the river fish and reindeer they depend on for food and causes chronic
health conditions.
Tourism in alpine environments
Tourism in the European Alps has increased significantly in recent years due to higher levels
of wealth and increased mobility and leisure time. According to the World Wide Fund for
Nature, 120 million people visit the alps each year.
The most destructive human impacts are associated with
the ski industry. The Carpathian Mountains in Bulgaria are
widely acknowledged as one of Europe’s last wilderness
areas. The mountains, with some of the last remaining old-
growth forests in Europe, are home to two-thirds of the
continent’s populations of brown bears, wolves and lynx.
The highly lucrative ski industry has led to illegal ski
developments here, with scant regard for environmental
conservation. Forests have been stripped to make way for
ski developments, and infrastructure, resulting in habitat
loss or fragmentation (where a large expanse of habitat is
transformed into a number of smaller patches of smaller total area isolated from each other
by a matrix of habitats unlike the original). Deforestation also makes the ground surface too
hard to absorb water, which can cause flooding, erosion, and mud avalanches. Trees also
prevent avalanches, and their removal increases the avalanche risk in winter.
Modern adventure sports (mountain biking, canyoning or paragliding) and some motor-
based leisure activities are now entering areas previously untouched by tourism. They are
causing a major disturbance to wildlife in the Alps and pose a very direct threat to
biodiversity. Many animals, even if they don’t hibernate, adopt a slowed-down pace during
the winter to conserve energy, and skiers risk disrupting the animals’ natural rhythms and
even killing them if they are startled or forced to flee.
