Contents
De empirische cyclus:.........................................................................................................................3
Good theories are …..........................................................................................................................3
Research.............................................................................................................................................4
Journalism..........................................................................................................................................4
Hoofdstuk 2...........................................................................................................................................5
Superior source of evidence...............................................................................................................5
Three kind of sources where scientist publish....................................................................................6
Components of an empirical journal article........................................................................................6
Hoofdstuk 3...........................................................................................................................................7
Variables.............................................................................................................................................7
Three claims.......................................................................................................................................7
Four validities.....................................................................................................................................8
Three claims four validities.................................................................................................................8
Hoofdstuk 4...........................................................................................................................................9
The Belmont Report...........................................................................................................................9
APA five general principles (Belmont plus two)..................................................................................9
Ethical standards for research..........................................................................................................10
Hoofdstuk 5.........................................................................................................................................12
Measurement...................................................................................................................................12
Three common types of measures;..............................................................................................12
Scales of measurement;...............................................................................................................13
Reliability..........................................................................................................................................13
Three types of reliability;..............................................................................................................13
Two statistical devices for data analysis;......................................................................................13
Validity..............................................................................................................................................14
Two subjective ways to assess validity;........................................................................................14
Three empirical ways to assess validity;.......................................................................................14
Hoofdstuk 6.....................................................................................................................................16
Construct validity of surveys and polls.............................................................................................16
Construct validity of behavioural observations................................................................................17
Drie soorten observationeel onderzoek;..........................................................................................18
Hoofdstuk 7.........................................................................................................................................19
Populations and samples..................................................................................................................19
Obtaining a representative sample...................................................................................................19
, Settling for an unrepresentative sample...........................................................................................20
Frequency claim;..............................................................................................................................20
Hoofdstuk 8.........................................................................................................................................21
Association claim..............................................................................................................................21
Hoofdstuk 10.......................................................................................................................................23
Experimental variables.....................................................................................................................23
Why experiments support causal claim............................................................................................23
Independent-groups design..............................................................................................................24
Within-group design.........................................................................................................................24
Difference pretest/posttest and repeated measures design........................................................25
Causal claim......................................................................................................................................25
Hoofdstuk 11.......................................................................................................................................27
Threats to internal validity................................................................................................................27
Six potential internal validity threats in one group, pretest/posttest design;...............................27
Three potential internal validity threats in any study...................................................................28
Discussed confounds....................................................................................................................28
Interrogating null effects..................................................................................................................28
Perhaps not enough between-group-differences.........................................................................28
Perhaps within-group variability obscured the group differences................................................29
Verschil confound & obscuring factors.............................................................................................29
Hoofdstuk 12...................................................................................................................................30
Experiments with two independent variables can show interactions..............................................30
Factorial designs...............................................................................................................................30
Interpreting factorial design.............................................................................................................30
Factorial variations...........................................................................................................................31
Hoofdstuk 14.......................................................................................................................................32
To be important a study must be replicated....................................................................................32
Hoofdstuk
1
,Evidence-based treatments: Therapies that are supported by research
Empiricism: Use evidence from senses (sight ,hearing, touch) or instruments that assist the senses
(timers, questionnaires, weight scales) as the basis for conclusion. Don’t base conclusions on
intuition, on casual observations of their own experience or on what other people say.
Empiricist: basing one’s conclusions on systematic observations, aim to be systematic, rigorous, and
to make their work independently verifiable by other observers or scientists. Must strive to interpret
the data you collected in an objective way (must guard against common biases).
De empirische cyclus:
Observatie: verzamelen en groeperen van empirische feiten
Theorie (inductie): vormen van theorie op basis van de observatie (algemeen)
Voorspelling/hypothese (deductie): afleiden van een toetsbare hypothese/voorspelling uit je
theorie (specifiek)
Toetsing: uitvoeren van een onderzoek om de hypothese te testen
Evaluatie: wat betekenen de onderzoekuitkomsten (de nieuwe observaties) voor de theorie
Met de resultaten van de toetsing (het onderzoek) evalueren we de theorie
1. De voorspelling komt uit; de theorie is niet weerlegd
2. De voorspelling komt niet uit; dan hebben we een probleem
Hoe kan dat;
Vrijwel onmogelijk om een theorie met één onderzoek te weerleggen
- kan altijd iets fout gegaan zijn
de studie is niet goed gegaan
verkeerde hypothese gedaan
Theorie kan niet oneindig geplakt wordt. Op een gegeven moment loop je het risico
dat de theorie onfalsificeerbaar wordt.
Psychologie is probabilistisch, een resultaat kan door puur toeval komen
De cyclus moet grondig (helemaal) moeten worden doorlopen. De theorieën die dit wel doen zijn
niet-falsificeerbare theorieën. Ze onttrekken zich aan toetsing, ze zijn in overeenstemming met alle
mogelijke observaties.
Waarom niet goed:
er kan niet worden bepaald welk van meerde theorieën de juiste is, komen zo niet dichter bij een
verklaring van een fenomeen.
Theorie waar nooit een observatie tegen is gedaan kan nog steeds falsificeerbaar zijn, de observatie
tégen de theorie moet mogelijk zijn (zwaartekracht).
Good theories are …
- Supported by data
A good theory is supported by a large quantity an variety of evidence
- Falsifiable
A theory must lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could actually fail to support the theory.
- Have parsimony
Theories are supposed to be simple. Sometimes a theory is slightly less parsimonious but does a
better job of accommodating the data. If two theories explain data equally well, most scientists will
opt for the simpler, more parsimonious theory.
Prove is not used in science, they will say that some data support, are consistent with a theory, are
inconsistent with or complicate a theory.
Weight of the evidence: how scientist evaluate theories, rather than thinking of a theory as proved or
as disproved.
It’s impossible to prove a theory;
, 1. You can’t rule out all alternative explanations
2. There is tested only one explanation. While a theory does a lot of explanations
Research
Applied research: done with a practical problem in mind, the researchers conduct their work in a
particular real world problem.
Basic research: is not intended to address a specific, practical problem. The goal is to understand
certain things (e.g. structure of the visual system, the motivations of a depressed person). Basic
research is not gathering facts at random, the knowledge may be applied to real-world issues later
on.
Translation research: the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to
forms of treatment and intervention. Represents a dynamic bridge from basic to applied research.
Journal: where scientist tell the scientific world about the results of their research.
- first are peer-reviewed; journal editor send submission to three or four experts on the subject a.k.a.
peer reviewers (are anonymous)
- send back the reviewed article
- editor decides whether the paper is published
Journalism
Mozart effect: example of how journalists might misrepresent science when they write for a popular
audience.
The cupboard theory: a mother is valuable to a baby mammal because she is a source of food
The contact comfort theory: a mother is valuable to a baby mammal because she gives comfort
- Producers of research
- Consumers of research
De empirische cyclus:.........................................................................................................................3
Good theories are …..........................................................................................................................3
Research.............................................................................................................................................4
Journalism..........................................................................................................................................4
Hoofdstuk 2...........................................................................................................................................5
Superior source of evidence...............................................................................................................5
Three kind of sources where scientist publish....................................................................................6
Components of an empirical journal article........................................................................................6
Hoofdstuk 3...........................................................................................................................................7
Variables.............................................................................................................................................7
Three claims.......................................................................................................................................7
Four validities.....................................................................................................................................8
Three claims four validities.................................................................................................................8
Hoofdstuk 4...........................................................................................................................................9
The Belmont Report...........................................................................................................................9
APA five general principles (Belmont plus two)..................................................................................9
Ethical standards for research..........................................................................................................10
Hoofdstuk 5.........................................................................................................................................12
Measurement...................................................................................................................................12
Three common types of measures;..............................................................................................12
Scales of measurement;...............................................................................................................13
Reliability..........................................................................................................................................13
Three types of reliability;..............................................................................................................13
Two statistical devices for data analysis;......................................................................................13
Validity..............................................................................................................................................14
Two subjective ways to assess validity;........................................................................................14
Three empirical ways to assess validity;.......................................................................................14
Hoofdstuk 6.....................................................................................................................................16
Construct validity of surveys and polls.............................................................................................16
Construct validity of behavioural observations................................................................................17
Drie soorten observationeel onderzoek;..........................................................................................18
Hoofdstuk 7.........................................................................................................................................19
Populations and samples..................................................................................................................19
Obtaining a representative sample...................................................................................................19
, Settling for an unrepresentative sample...........................................................................................20
Frequency claim;..............................................................................................................................20
Hoofdstuk 8.........................................................................................................................................21
Association claim..............................................................................................................................21
Hoofdstuk 10.......................................................................................................................................23
Experimental variables.....................................................................................................................23
Why experiments support causal claim............................................................................................23
Independent-groups design..............................................................................................................24
Within-group design.........................................................................................................................24
Difference pretest/posttest and repeated measures design........................................................25
Causal claim......................................................................................................................................25
Hoofdstuk 11.......................................................................................................................................27
Threats to internal validity................................................................................................................27
Six potential internal validity threats in one group, pretest/posttest design;...............................27
Three potential internal validity threats in any study...................................................................28
Discussed confounds....................................................................................................................28
Interrogating null effects..................................................................................................................28
Perhaps not enough between-group-differences.........................................................................28
Perhaps within-group variability obscured the group differences................................................29
Verschil confound & obscuring factors.............................................................................................29
Hoofdstuk 12...................................................................................................................................30
Experiments with two independent variables can show interactions..............................................30
Factorial designs...............................................................................................................................30
Interpreting factorial design.............................................................................................................30
Factorial variations...........................................................................................................................31
Hoofdstuk 14.......................................................................................................................................32
To be important a study must be replicated....................................................................................32
Hoofdstuk
1
,Evidence-based treatments: Therapies that are supported by research
Empiricism: Use evidence from senses (sight ,hearing, touch) or instruments that assist the senses
(timers, questionnaires, weight scales) as the basis for conclusion. Don’t base conclusions on
intuition, on casual observations of their own experience or on what other people say.
Empiricist: basing one’s conclusions on systematic observations, aim to be systematic, rigorous, and
to make their work independently verifiable by other observers or scientists. Must strive to interpret
the data you collected in an objective way (must guard against common biases).
De empirische cyclus:
Observatie: verzamelen en groeperen van empirische feiten
Theorie (inductie): vormen van theorie op basis van de observatie (algemeen)
Voorspelling/hypothese (deductie): afleiden van een toetsbare hypothese/voorspelling uit je
theorie (specifiek)
Toetsing: uitvoeren van een onderzoek om de hypothese te testen
Evaluatie: wat betekenen de onderzoekuitkomsten (de nieuwe observaties) voor de theorie
Met de resultaten van de toetsing (het onderzoek) evalueren we de theorie
1. De voorspelling komt uit; de theorie is niet weerlegd
2. De voorspelling komt niet uit; dan hebben we een probleem
Hoe kan dat;
Vrijwel onmogelijk om een theorie met één onderzoek te weerleggen
- kan altijd iets fout gegaan zijn
de studie is niet goed gegaan
verkeerde hypothese gedaan
Theorie kan niet oneindig geplakt wordt. Op een gegeven moment loop je het risico
dat de theorie onfalsificeerbaar wordt.
Psychologie is probabilistisch, een resultaat kan door puur toeval komen
De cyclus moet grondig (helemaal) moeten worden doorlopen. De theorieën die dit wel doen zijn
niet-falsificeerbare theorieën. Ze onttrekken zich aan toetsing, ze zijn in overeenstemming met alle
mogelijke observaties.
Waarom niet goed:
er kan niet worden bepaald welk van meerde theorieën de juiste is, komen zo niet dichter bij een
verklaring van een fenomeen.
Theorie waar nooit een observatie tegen is gedaan kan nog steeds falsificeerbaar zijn, de observatie
tégen de theorie moet mogelijk zijn (zwaartekracht).
Good theories are …
- Supported by data
A good theory is supported by a large quantity an variety of evidence
- Falsifiable
A theory must lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could actually fail to support the theory.
- Have parsimony
Theories are supposed to be simple. Sometimes a theory is slightly less parsimonious but does a
better job of accommodating the data. If two theories explain data equally well, most scientists will
opt for the simpler, more parsimonious theory.
Prove is not used in science, they will say that some data support, are consistent with a theory, are
inconsistent with or complicate a theory.
Weight of the evidence: how scientist evaluate theories, rather than thinking of a theory as proved or
as disproved.
It’s impossible to prove a theory;
, 1. You can’t rule out all alternative explanations
2. There is tested only one explanation. While a theory does a lot of explanations
Research
Applied research: done with a practical problem in mind, the researchers conduct their work in a
particular real world problem.
Basic research: is not intended to address a specific, practical problem. The goal is to understand
certain things (e.g. structure of the visual system, the motivations of a depressed person). Basic
research is not gathering facts at random, the knowledge may be applied to real-world issues later
on.
Translation research: the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test applications to
forms of treatment and intervention. Represents a dynamic bridge from basic to applied research.
Journal: where scientist tell the scientific world about the results of their research.
- first are peer-reviewed; journal editor send submission to three or four experts on the subject a.k.a.
peer reviewers (are anonymous)
- send back the reviewed article
- editor decides whether the paper is published
Journalism
Mozart effect: example of how journalists might misrepresent science when they write for a popular
audience.
The cupboard theory: a mother is valuable to a baby mammal because she is a source of food
The contact comfort theory: a mother is valuable to a baby mammal because she gives comfort
- Producers of research
- Consumers of research
