Chapter 1 – Why Is There No European Army Yet?
1. Introduction: Why Study European Defence Integration?
One of the biggest paradoxes of European integration is that the EU has achieved deep economic
and political cooperation, yet it still does not possess a genuine European army. Although defence
cooperation has increased over time, military power remains largely under the control of the
Member States.
To understand why, it is necessary to examine the origins of European integration after World War
II, the Cold War context, and the repeated attempts to create a common European defence policy.
2. The International Context After World War II
Europe emerged devastated from World War II. Millions had died, economies were destroyed, and
political stability had collapsed.
At the same time, two new superpowers emerged:
The United States
The Soviet Union (USSR)
Although both had fought together against Nazi Germany, they held fundamentally different
visions for post-war Europe.
The Soviet Vision
The USSR wanted to create a security buffer in Eastern Europe by establishing communist
governments loyal to Moscow.
The American Vision
The United States promoted democracy, free markets, and international cooperation.
These opposing visions gradually produced the Cold War, which dominated European politics from
roughly 1945 until 1991.
3. The Origins of the Cold War
The roots of the Cold War can be traced back to the final years of WWII.
Soviet Distrust
Joseph Stalin believed the Western Allies had deliberately delayed opening a second front against
Germany.
Although Stalin repeatedly requested military assistance, the Western Allies only launched the
Normandy landings in June 1944.
As a result, Stalin suspected that the West wanted Germany and the Soviet Union to weaken each
other.
Western Distrust
The Western powers increasingly feared Soviet expansion.
,Several developments reinforced these fears:
Communist parties gained popularity in Western Europe.
The USSR supported communist movements abroad.
Communist governments were installed throughout Eastern Europe.
Both sides viewed each other as a threat, making cooperation increasingly difficult.
Europe became divided into two blocs:
West: capitalist, democratic, led
by USA
East: communist, one-party, led
by ussr
This division became known as the Iron Curtain.
4. Early Ideas of European Unity
European integration did not suddenly emerge after WWII. Several thinkers had already proposed
closer cooperation between European states.
Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi
In 1923 he launched the Pan-European Movement.
His objectives were:
Prevent future European wars.
Strengthen Europe economically.
Counter growing American and Soviet influence.
Although the movement achieved limited practical success, it influenced later European
integration projects.
Briand-Kellogg Pact (1928)
French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand and US Secretary of State Frank Kellogg promoted an
agreement rejecting war as a means of solving disputes.
Although it ultimately failed to prevent WWII, it reflected growing support for international
cooperation.
José Ortega y Gasset
The Spanish philosopher argued that individual nation-states were no longer capable of solving
modern economic and political problems.
He believed Europe needed broader forms of cooperation.
,5. The United Nations
During WWII, Allied leaders began discussing how to prevent future global conflicts.
Moscow Conference (1943)
The United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China agreed on the need for a new
international organization.
Yalta Conference (1945)
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin discussed the post-war order and Soviet participation in the future
organization.
Creation of the UN
On 25 April 1945, representatives from 50 countries met to establish the United Nations.
Its objectives were:
Maintaining peace.
Promoting cooperation.
Preventing future wars.
The most important institution became the Security Council, with five permanent members:
USA, USSR, UK, France and China
Although the UN promoted cooperation, it could not stop the growing conflict between East and
West.
6. NATO and the Militarization of the Cold War
As Soviet influence expanded, Western European countries increasingly feared military
aggression.
Creation of NATO (1949)
On 12 April 1949, twelve countries signed the Washington Treaty and created NATO.
Main Principle
Article 5 established collective defence:
An attack against one member is considered an attack against all members.
Founding Members
Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, France, Italy, UK, USA, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and
Portugal
Expansion
In 1951, Greece and Turkey joined.
For Moscow, this expansion reinforced the perception of encirclement by Western powers.
, 7. The Warsaw Pact
The Soviet response came in 1955 with the creation of the Warsaw Pact.
Members included:
Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Cze-slo, East-Germany and Albania
The Cold War was now formally institutionalized through two opposing military alliances.
Europe became a continent divided between NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
8. Benelux: A Model for European Integration
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg sought closer cooperation after WWII.
Origins
The project built upon earlier cooperation such as the Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union
(BLEU).
Benelux Customs Union
Established in 1948.
Goals:
Remove customs barriers.
Facilitate trade.
Promote economic recovery.
Importance
Benelux demonstrated that gradual integration could succeed.
Many later European developments were inspired by Benelux:
Customs Union
Common Market
Eurozone
Schengen Area
Its institutional structure also influenced future European institutions.
9. The Marshall Plan
In 1947, US Secretary of State George Marshall proposed a massive recovery program for Europe.
Objectives
Rebuild European economies.
Prevent communist influence.
Encourage cooperation between states.
1. Introduction: Why Study European Defence Integration?
One of the biggest paradoxes of European integration is that the EU has achieved deep economic
and political cooperation, yet it still does not possess a genuine European army. Although defence
cooperation has increased over time, military power remains largely under the control of the
Member States.
To understand why, it is necessary to examine the origins of European integration after World War
II, the Cold War context, and the repeated attempts to create a common European defence policy.
2. The International Context After World War II
Europe emerged devastated from World War II. Millions had died, economies were destroyed, and
political stability had collapsed.
At the same time, two new superpowers emerged:
The United States
The Soviet Union (USSR)
Although both had fought together against Nazi Germany, they held fundamentally different
visions for post-war Europe.
The Soviet Vision
The USSR wanted to create a security buffer in Eastern Europe by establishing communist
governments loyal to Moscow.
The American Vision
The United States promoted democracy, free markets, and international cooperation.
These opposing visions gradually produced the Cold War, which dominated European politics from
roughly 1945 until 1991.
3. The Origins of the Cold War
The roots of the Cold War can be traced back to the final years of WWII.
Soviet Distrust
Joseph Stalin believed the Western Allies had deliberately delayed opening a second front against
Germany.
Although Stalin repeatedly requested military assistance, the Western Allies only launched the
Normandy landings in June 1944.
As a result, Stalin suspected that the West wanted Germany and the Soviet Union to weaken each
other.
Western Distrust
The Western powers increasingly feared Soviet expansion.
,Several developments reinforced these fears:
Communist parties gained popularity in Western Europe.
The USSR supported communist movements abroad.
Communist governments were installed throughout Eastern Europe.
Both sides viewed each other as a threat, making cooperation increasingly difficult.
Europe became divided into two blocs:
West: capitalist, democratic, led
by USA
East: communist, one-party, led
by ussr
This division became known as the Iron Curtain.
4. Early Ideas of European Unity
European integration did not suddenly emerge after WWII. Several thinkers had already proposed
closer cooperation between European states.
Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi
In 1923 he launched the Pan-European Movement.
His objectives were:
Prevent future European wars.
Strengthen Europe economically.
Counter growing American and Soviet influence.
Although the movement achieved limited practical success, it influenced later European
integration projects.
Briand-Kellogg Pact (1928)
French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand and US Secretary of State Frank Kellogg promoted an
agreement rejecting war as a means of solving disputes.
Although it ultimately failed to prevent WWII, it reflected growing support for international
cooperation.
José Ortega y Gasset
The Spanish philosopher argued that individual nation-states were no longer capable of solving
modern economic and political problems.
He believed Europe needed broader forms of cooperation.
,5. The United Nations
During WWII, Allied leaders began discussing how to prevent future global conflicts.
Moscow Conference (1943)
The United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and China agreed on the need for a new
international organization.
Yalta Conference (1945)
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin discussed the post-war order and Soviet participation in the future
organization.
Creation of the UN
On 25 April 1945, representatives from 50 countries met to establish the United Nations.
Its objectives were:
Maintaining peace.
Promoting cooperation.
Preventing future wars.
The most important institution became the Security Council, with five permanent members:
USA, USSR, UK, France and China
Although the UN promoted cooperation, it could not stop the growing conflict between East and
West.
6. NATO and the Militarization of the Cold War
As Soviet influence expanded, Western European countries increasingly feared military
aggression.
Creation of NATO (1949)
On 12 April 1949, twelve countries signed the Washington Treaty and created NATO.
Main Principle
Article 5 established collective defence:
An attack against one member is considered an attack against all members.
Founding Members
Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg, France, Italy, UK, USA, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and
Portugal
Expansion
In 1951, Greece and Turkey joined.
For Moscow, this expansion reinforced the perception of encirclement by Western powers.
, 7. The Warsaw Pact
The Soviet response came in 1955 with the creation of the Warsaw Pact.
Members included:
Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Cze-slo, East-Germany and Albania
The Cold War was now formally institutionalized through two opposing military alliances.
Europe became a continent divided between NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
8. Benelux: A Model for European Integration
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg sought closer cooperation after WWII.
Origins
The project built upon earlier cooperation such as the Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union
(BLEU).
Benelux Customs Union
Established in 1948.
Goals:
Remove customs barriers.
Facilitate trade.
Promote economic recovery.
Importance
Benelux demonstrated that gradual integration could succeed.
Many later European developments were inspired by Benelux:
Customs Union
Common Market
Eurozone
Schengen Area
Its institutional structure also influenced future European institutions.
9. The Marshall Plan
In 1947, US Secretary of State George Marshall proposed a massive recovery program for Europe.
Objectives
Rebuild European economies.
Prevent communist influence.
Encourage cooperation between states.
