Human Rights Law
Inhoud
I. Concept Human rights.............................................................................................................. 5
1. Terminology.......................................................................................................................... 5
2. Legal sources........................................................................................................................ 6
3. Historical perspective........................................................................................................... 8
4. (No) Hierarchy....................................................................................................................... 9
II. Universal Protection (United Nations)...................................................................................... 9
1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR dec 10 1948)...............................................9
2. Treaties............................................................................................................................... 10
3. Universal Mechanisms........................................................................................................ 11
A. Treaty-based: Committees............................................................................................... 11
B. Charter-Based: political mechanism................................................................................11
C. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.........................................................12
4. Illustrations......................................................................................................................... 12
A. Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human
rights................................................................................................................................... 12
III. Regional Protection: Europe.................................................................................................. 13
1. Council of Europe: Legal Sources........................................................................................ 14
2. Council of Europe: Enforcement Mechanisms.....................................................................15
A. European Court of Human Rights.................................................................................... 15
B. European Committee Social Rights (ECSR)......................................................................22
IV. Regional Protection: European Union.................................................................................... 24
1. EU Human Rights Sources................................................................................................... 24
2. EU Enforcement mechanisms............................................................................................. 25
A. Political Enforcement....................................................................................................... 25
B. Judicial Enforcement(EU)................................................................................................. 26
3. Relationship EU-Coe............................................................................................................ 29
V. Effect of Human Rights Treaties in Belgium............................................................................30
1. Relationship between legal orders: effect of treaties in Belgium........................................30
3. Human Rights Protection in Belgium................................................................................... 32
3. Execution of ECtHR judgments in Belgium..........................................................................33
4. Effective remedy................................................................................................................. 34
VI. Typology of Human Rights Obligations.................................................................................. 35
1. Human Rights Treaties: interpreting open norms................................................................35
2. Typology of the State’s Obligations..................................................................................... 37
1
, 2.1. Different categorizations.............................................................................................. 37
2.2. Negative Obligations (obligation to respect).................................................................38
2.3 Positive Obligations (obligation to protect and fulfill)....................................................40
3. Various Legal Frameworks for Various Rights......................................................................40
4. Derogable Rights in Times of Emergency?..........................................................................41
A. Ratio legis........................................................................................................................ 41
B. Requirements.................................................................................................................. 41
5. Cases and questions........................................................................................................... 42
VII. Right to Life.......................................................................................................................... 42
1. Absolute right..................................................................................................................... 42
2. Scope.................................................................................................................................. 42
3. Obligations.......................................................................................................................... 44
A. Negative obligation......................................................................................................... 44
B. Positive Obligations (3 types).......................................................................................... 45
4. Positive Obligations and right to life................................................................................... 46
5. Procedural obligation: effective investigation.....................................................................48
5. Cases and Questions (1)..................................................................................................... 51
VIII. Prohibition of Torture or Inhuman or Degrading Treatment.................................................52
Absolute right......................................................................................................................... 52
1. Applicability........................................................................................................................ 53
2. Classification (merits)......................................................................................................... 53
3. Obligations.......................................................................................................................... 54
4. Attribution – burden of proof............................................................................................... 55
Judicial Activism...................................................................................................................... 60
Cases and questions............................................................................................................... 60
IX.a. Right to a Fair Trial: Applicability........................................................................................ 61
I. General................................................................................................................................ 61
1. Determination of civil rights............................................................................................ 61
2. Determination of criminal charge.................................................................................... 62
II.A Example ‘civil’ rights: civil servants?................................................................................63
II.B Example ‘civil’ rights: interim measure............................................................................. 63
IX.b. Right to a fair trial - guarantees......................................................................................... 65
§1 Guarantees......................................................................................................................... 65
1. Right to a Court.............................................................................................................. 66
2. Organisation and Composition......................................................................................... 67
A. Public Hearing/public pronouncement..........................................................................67
B. Reasonable Time.......................................................................................................... 67
2
, C. Rights of Defence......................................................................................................... 68
D. Duty to state reasons................................................................................................... 68
§2 Criminal proceedings: right to be presumed innocent........................................................69
§3 Criminal proceedings: overview......................................................................................... 69
1. Right to participate in the hearing................................................................................... 70
2. Law of evidence/Right to remain silent............................................................................71
3. Right of access to a lawyer.............................................................................................. 73
Cases and Questions............................................................................................................... 76
X. Right to Respect for Private and Family Life...........................................................................78
A. Right to Respect for Private Life.......................................................................................... 78
I. Scope................................................................................................................................ 78
a) Personal autonomy and development..........................................................................78
b) Data processing............................................................................................................ 78
c) Interaction with others.................................................................................................. 79
d) No explicit right to a clean and quiet environment:.....................................................79
II. Negative Obligation......................................................................................................... 79
a) Legal framework........................................................................................................... 79
b) Neg. Obl: medically assisted procreation.....................................................................79
c) Neg. Obl.: Data Processing........................................................................................... 81
d) Neg.Obl: Abortion laws (reminder) .............................................................................. 82
e) Neg. Obl.: Imposing a vaccine...................................................................................... 82
III. Positive Obligations......................................................................................................... 83
A. Access to personal information.................................................................................... 84
B. Positive obligation to protect........................................................................................ 86
C. Pos. oblig.: protecting the environment........................................................................86
D. Pos. oblig.: climate change........................................................................................... 87
B. Right to Respect Family Life................................................................................................ 89
I. Scope................................................................................................................................ 89
II. Negative Obligations........................................................................................................ 90
III. Positive Obligation.......................................................................................................... 91
Cases and questions............................................................................................................... 93
XI. Freedom of Assembly and Association..................................................................................95
1. Sources............................................................................................................................... 95
2. Freedom of Assembly and Association................................................................................95
i. Scope Art. 11 ECHR........................................................................................................... 95
Scope of Application Constitution........................................................................................ 96
ii. Negative obligation: Dissolution of political party............................................................97
3
, iii. Positive obligation to protect freedom of assembly........................................................98
3. Union Freedom.................................................................................................................... 98
A. Negative obligation.......................................................................................................... 99
B. Positive obligation........................................................................................................... 99
4. Right to strike: protected by Art. 11 ECHR?......................................................................100
A. Negative obligation: Right to strike (ECHR)...................................................................101
B. Negative Obligation: Right to Strike (ECSR)...................................................................102
5. Cases and Questions......................................................................................................... 103
XII. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.................................................................................104
1. Legal Sources.................................................................................................................... 104
A. General Principles......................................................................................................... 104
B. Art. 23 Belgian Constitution (1994):.............................................................................. 104
C. Treaties.......................................................................................................................... 105
D. Relative rights - limitations........................................................................................... 105
E. Protecting the most vulnerable...................................................................................... 106
2. Classical (outdated?) approach......................................................................................... 106
3. Alternative Integrated Approach.......................................................................................... 107
4. ESCR – typology and obligations....................................................................................... 108
A) Traditional typology....................................................................................................... 109
B) Progressive realisation:................................................................................................. 110
i) UN-Committee............................................................................................................. 110
ii) ECSR........................................................................................................................... 111
iii) Belgium..................................................................................................................... 112
C) Core obligations............................................................................................................ 114
Cases and questions............................................................................................................. 114
XIII. Right to Education............................................................................................................. 116
1. Sources............................................................................................................................. 116
i. Scope.................................................................................................................................... 116
3. Dimensions....................................................................................................................... 117
4. Core Obligations............................................................................................................... 117
5. Educational Freedom........................................................................................................ 117
5.A Educational Freedom: Respect religious and philosophical convictions parents..........118
5.B Educational Freedom: Religious and philosophical convictions parents.......................119
6.A Right - Positive obligations : availability and accessibility..............................................120
6.B Right -Positive obligations: free (primary) education......................................................121
Cases and questions............................................................................................................. 122
XVI. Equality and non-discrimination....................................................................................... 123
4
, 1. Sources............................................................................................................................. 123
2. Legal Significance............................................................................................................. 124
3. Typologies......................................................................................................................... 125
a) autonomous................................................................................................................... 125
b) Discrimination.............................................................................................................. 126
c) Equality......................................................................................................................... 128
4. Protected grounds............................................................................................................. 129
1.Exclusively nationality.................................................................................................... 129
2. Migration Status + conditional entry.............................................................................130
3. Race or ethnic origin...................................................................................................... 131
4. Gender........................................................................................................................... 132
5. Gender/old age/young age............................................................................................ 133
5. Added value EU-Charter................................................................................................... 136
Cases and questions............................................................................................................. 137
XV Transversal Issues............................................................................................................... 139
I. Transversal issues.............................................................................................................. 139
1. Human Dignity............................................................................................................... 139
2. Margin of Appreciation................................................................................................... 139
3. Pluralism........................................................................................................................ 142
4. Horizontal Effect - Drittwirkung...................................................................................... 142
5. Hierarchy of Rights........................................................................................................ 142
6. Conflicting rights: balancing rights................................................................................ 143
7. Waiver of Rights............................................................................................................. 143
8. Procedural obligations................................................................................................... 143
9. Other transversal issues................................................................................................ 144
10. Exam............................................................................................................................ 144
11. Questions?................................................................................................................... 145
I. Concept Human rights
1. Terminology
Fundamental Rights and Freedoms
Basic Rights
Refers to the constitution.
Human Rights
5
,Why fundamental?
a) Protecting the individual against arbitrary power State
‘the individual’, after WW2.
Evolution:
-acts by the authorities: protecting you against what the state is doing.
-failure to act by the authorities: when they should do something to protect you, is controversial. What states
have to do, is something for democracy, not for judges.
-protection against third parties
b) Protecting human dignity
-> vulnerability
Second important concept; living a life in human dignity, relates to the idea that HR protects the most vulnerable
people (prisoners eg).
Everybody will be in their life a vulnerable person at least once.
Liberal democracy (3 pillars):
We defend the liberal democracy, if we agree to defend that, we have to understand what is and how it functions.
One of the problems now is that people don’t know any more what those concepts mean.
a) Rule of Law
No one is above the law, including those in power (state). Everyone is bounded by it, even the authorities.
b) Democracy
The majority rules, the majority makes the laws.
c) Human Rights
Protecting minorities, vulnerable people. Protecting against the majority rules, the majority isn’t always right.
A mechanism to protect minorities against the majority. It is unsolvable.
Interaction between those three, necessary to explain these definitions, although they are imperfect.
You need to know the simple concepts and explain them simply.
Duties
One-sided emphasis on rights?
15u15
Rights and duties
e.g. African Charter, chapter II(1986)
Art. 27: duties towards family, society, State…
Art. 29: duty to preserve harmonious development of family, to serve national community…
Criticism?
2. Legal sources
- Positive law
Legal sources: general principles, customary law, treaties, constitutions
- Natural law: Human Dignity
We can refer to human dignity, as a human you can refer to human rights ~it’s natural.
Being human suffices to have fundamental rights.
Human dignity in itself is now recognised as a human right.
Article 1 UDHR: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. […]”
Also recognized in various treaties (cf. Art. 1 EU-Charter)
6
, - “Universal juridical Conscience” (Inter-American Court of Human Rights)
Natural law; what does everyone think of what the solution is ~natural law.
- European Consensus (will of States) (European Court of Human Rights)
European system: what is European consensus? The will of States is important ~positive law.
In between?: “Law-making treaties”: common interest (instead of pure national State interest), no reciprocity.
Treaties is like a contract between states. The idea of human rights is about a common interest, the whole
community has an interest in protecting those rights. Common interest in protecting the individual.
Interstate cases (Ukraine vs Russia).
The individuals should rely on international treaties. We have those basic rights, but the interpretation of those
rights lead to new rights and rules (essential characteristic of HR).
ECHR – makes sense of those abstract rights.
- “Human dignity”: ambiguous concept
Dwarf tossing is against human dignity (French judge), they prohibited it.
autonomy/self-determination (Anglo-Saxon)
or
‘moral’ public order, we have to defend it – also people against themselves.
people should not be used as an object, but as a subject (Kant)?
- Two conflicting uses of human dignity
Wackenheim: Human Rights Committee
7.4. (seq.) The Committee considers that the State party has demonstrated, in the present case, that the ban on
dwarf tossing as practised by the author did not constitute an abusive measure but was necessary in order to
protect public order, which brings into play considerations of human dignity that are compatible with the
objectives of the Covenant. The Committee accordingly concludes that the differentiation between the author and
the persons to whom the ban ordered by the State party does not apply was based on objective and reasonable
grounds.
- only dwarfs can be thrown in the air not very convincing.
- it’s not discriminatory in its purpose.
- the ban was necessary in order to protect public order (what with prostitution?)
Different approaches of human dignity.
Wackenheim: Should the authorities according to the HRC prohibit dwarf tossing because it is contrary to human
dignity?
France, as a state, protects human dignity in the way they see it. in Belgium, we can have another idea (eg
autonomy). States can have different approaches of human dignity.
If it’s necessary to protect public order, you have to prohibit it.
- Human Dignity according to Nussbaum
M. Nussbaum (“Frontiers of Justice”) identifies a list of central human capabilities that are implicit in the idea of life
worth of human dignity.
You need some capabilities; entire list of them, they are important. Any way of life should be possible, using your
capabilities.
More than functionings.
They support our powers of practical reason and choice, and have a special importance in making any choice of a way of
life possible.
Capabilities should be pursued for each and every person and there is a threshold level of each capability, beneath which
it is held that truly human functioning is not available to citizens.
7
, - IACtHR, Yakye Axa v. Paraguay
Right to life (open norm): living a life in dignity
European court doesn’t go so far; because than every state should generate minimum living conditions.
State must generate “minimum living conditions that are compatible with the dignity of the human person” and may not
create “conditions that hinder or impede it” (§68)
“Duty to take positive, concrete measures geared toward fulfillment of the right to a decent life, especially in the case of
persons who are vulnerable and at risk” (§68)
- ECtHR, Haas v. Switzerland
Right to die with dignity?
Is there an obligation for States according to the ECtHR to adopt measures to facilitate the act of suicide with dignity?
Haas case: a person, who was not terminal, but wanted to have a dignified suicide. He needed specific
medications, not a single psychiatrist wanted to give it. Right to life and right to privacy
§52: should he be able to have it?
§53: court – dignified suicide?
§54: duty to protect vulnerable people who want to end their life.
Court emphasises another issue (§55); there is no consensus.
We should have a regulation to prevent abuse (§58).
In order to protect life (art 2) – the decision to end one’s life, is freely and with full understanding. The fact that
you need a psychiatrist.
§61: there is no violation to your right of privacy.
The court is saying (§61): even assuming it (does not mean that it does exists), the Swiss
- Discussions now: euthanasia and dementia. Free consent in advance?
- ECtHR, Camara v. Belgium (p. 5)
Human dignity and the rule of law
Refugee crisis -> no housing for young men. Policy towards refugees.
Not executing provisional housing orders ordered by judges: rule of law in danger!
Rule of law is not always respected, the government did not respect the conclusion of the judge.
According to the Belgian law, we should give housing to refugees. - §8
They waited for 4 months
Human dignity: housing waiting for 4 months is too long §17).
Combination of rule of law and human dignity.
§10, §11, §12 – execution was complex (big increase)
Systemic failure, deficiency, violation of art 6 of EVRM it was a 2023 case – important: Belgium is not
respecting the rule of law, the government is not respecting that.
Non-execution of judicial housing order: How long is too long?
Judicial decision was to protect human dignity!
Not only the thing in asylum cases; also cases about prisoners, noise around Zaventem.
3. Historical perspective
-Before W.W.II: fundamental rights were a national issue
Constitutions
Customary law
-After W.W.II: international perspective
Universal Declaration Fundamental Rights 1948
International Treaties
8
,Three generations of human rights:
- Civil and political rights -blue
Freedom of speech,
Favoured by the west
- Economic, social and cultural rights -red
- Collective/Solidarity rights -green
Right to peace, environment (for collectively)
Criticism: Interdependent! Indivisible! (IACtHR, Yakye Axa)
you cannot separate those different rights, we should consider them interdependent.
Relativity:
- cultural concept: Western (there isn’t an Asian concept of human rights)
- social: Bourgeois often they are protecting middle class, poor people don’t have the money to go to court. Huge
criticism; in economics – Matheuseffect.
HR: should be about changing mentalities, solutions without going to court.
- Treaties: first rights, but more and more effective enforcement mechanisms.
o ECRH
- Humanisation of the law (not only the will of States): objective law
o Protecting people because they are people.
Historical perspective: and now?
- Only protecting individuals? Quid groups, legal persons, animals, nature…?
- Only against State authorities? Quid multinationals, supranational authorities…?
4. (No) Hierarchy
absolute – relative rights-> but all required to guarantee human dignity
no hierarchy; you need every right
abs: allow for no-interference, no justification
rel: can be limited, with a justification (by a law, legitimate aim and in proportion). The rel rights can have a core
distinction in the treaties
Criterion?
- most fundamental/basic rights? (cf. “core rights”)
- See treaties:
-limitation clause
-Derogations in time of emergency (art. 15 ECHR)
II. Universal Protection (United Nations)
Multilateral view of the world.
15u35
1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR dec 10 1948)
- legal value?
Soft law, cannot be enforced because it’s a declaration. Not binding.
States who obtained: 6 communist, USSR, S-A and Saudi-Arabia
- enforcement mechanism?
If a state has not adopted any of the UN treaties, the UDHR will be used.
9
, - Civil-Political Rights and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
Two first generations of rights are in the first important international HR document.
2. Treaties
9 Basic Human Rights Treaties
2 basic treaties
1. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966)
o Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR-OP1, 1966)
o Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the
abolition of the death penalty (ICCPR-OP2, 1989)
2. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1966)
Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2008)
Treaties based on themes
3. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD, 1965)
4. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, 1979)
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW-
OP, 1999)
5. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT, 1984)
Optional Protocol to the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment (CAT-OP, 2002)
6. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989)
Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child
prostitution and child pornography (OP-CRC-SC, 2000)
Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in
armed conflict (OP-CRC-AC, 2000)
Optional protocol to the CRC to provide a communications procedure (2011)
7. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrants Workers and Members of Their
Families (CMW, 1990)
8. International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (2006)
9. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
-Check Ratification Status!-> quid Belgium?
Not signed in Belgium: CMW, 1990
Most of the other treaties are truly universal, have been ratified.
-Check Entry into force!
Belgium has accepted all the enforcement mechanisms.
-https://treaties.un.org
(or via www.ohchr.org)
10
Inhoud
I. Concept Human rights.............................................................................................................. 5
1. Terminology.......................................................................................................................... 5
2. Legal sources........................................................................................................................ 6
3. Historical perspective........................................................................................................... 8
4. (No) Hierarchy....................................................................................................................... 9
II. Universal Protection (United Nations)...................................................................................... 9
1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR dec 10 1948)...............................................9
2. Treaties............................................................................................................................... 10
3. Universal Mechanisms........................................................................................................ 11
A. Treaty-based: Committees............................................................................................... 11
B. Charter-Based: political mechanism................................................................................11
C. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.........................................................12
4. Illustrations......................................................................................................................... 12
A. Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human
rights................................................................................................................................... 12
III. Regional Protection: Europe.................................................................................................. 13
1. Council of Europe: Legal Sources........................................................................................ 14
2. Council of Europe: Enforcement Mechanisms.....................................................................15
A. European Court of Human Rights.................................................................................... 15
B. European Committee Social Rights (ECSR)......................................................................22
IV. Regional Protection: European Union.................................................................................... 24
1. EU Human Rights Sources................................................................................................... 24
2. EU Enforcement mechanisms............................................................................................. 25
A. Political Enforcement....................................................................................................... 25
B. Judicial Enforcement(EU)................................................................................................. 26
3. Relationship EU-Coe............................................................................................................ 29
V. Effect of Human Rights Treaties in Belgium............................................................................30
1. Relationship between legal orders: effect of treaties in Belgium........................................30
3. Human Rights Protection in Belgium................................................................................... 32
3. Execution of ECtHR judgments in Belgium..........................................................................33
4. Effective remedy................................................................................................................. 34
VI. Typology of Human Rights Obligations.................................................................................. 35
1. Human Rights Treaties: interpreting open norms................................................................35
2. Typology of the State’s Obligations..................................................................................... 37
1
, 2.1. Different categorizations.............................................................................................. 37
2.2. Negative Obligations (obligation to respect).................................................................38
2.3 Positive Obligations (obligation to protect and fulfill)....................................................40
3. Various Legal Frameworks for Various Rights......................................................................40
4. Derogable Rights in Times of Emergency?..........................................................................41
A. Ratio legis........................................................................................................................ 41
B. Requirements.................................................................................................................. 41
5. Cases and questions........................................................................................................... 42
VII. Right to Life.......................................................................................................................... 42
1. Absolute right..................................................................................................................... 42
2. Scope.................................................................................................................................. 42
3. Obligations.......................................................................................................................... 44
A. Negative obligation......................................................................................................... 44
B. Positive Obligations (3 types).......................................................................................... 45
4. Positive Obligations and right to life................................................................................... 46
5. Procedural obligation: effective investigation.....................................................................48
5. Cases and Questions (1)..................................................................................................... 51
VIII. Prohibition of Torture or Inhuman or Degrading Treatment.................................................52
Absolute right......................................................................................................................... 52
1. Applicability........................................................................................................................ 53
2. Classification (merits)......................................................................................................... 53
3. Obligations.......................................................................................................................... 54
4. Attribution – burden of proof............................................................................................... 55
Judicial Activism...................................................................................................................... 60
Cases and questions............................................................................................................... 60
IX.a. Right to a Fair Trial: Applicability........................................................................................ 61
I. General................................................................................................................................ 61
1. Determination of civil rights............................................................................................ 61
2. Determination of criminal charge.................................................................................... 62
II.A Example ‘civil’ rights: civil servants?................................................................................63
II.B Example ‘civil’ rights: interim measure............................................................................. 63
IX.b. Right to a fair trial - guarantees......................................................................................... 65
§1 Guarantees......................................................................................................................... 65
1. Right to a Court.............................................................................................................. 66
2. Organisation and Composition......................................................................................... 67
A. Public Hearing/public pronouncement..........................................................................67
B. Reasonable Time.......................................................................................................... 67
2
, C. Rights of Defence......................................................................................................... 68
D. Duty to state reasons................................................................................................... 68
§2 Criminal proceedings: right to be presumed innocent........................................................69
§3 Criminal proceedings: overview......................................................................................... 69
1. Right to participate in the hearing................................................................................... 70
2. Law of evidence/Right to remain silent............................................................................71
3. Right of access to a lawyer.............................................................................................. 73
Cases and Questions............................................................................................................... 76
X. Right to Respect for Private and Family Life...........................................................................78
A. Right to Respect for Private Life.......................................................................................... 78
I. Scope................................................................................................................................ 78
a) Personal autonomy and development..........................................................................78
b) Data processing............................................................................................................ 78
c) Interaction with others.................................................................................................. 79
d) No explicit right to a clean and quiet environment:.....................................................79
II. Negative Obligation......................................................................................................... 79
a) Legal framework........................................................................................................... 79
b) Neg. Obl: medically assisted procreation.....................................................................79
c) Neg. Obl.: Data Processing........................................................................................... 81
d) Neg.Obl: Abortion laws (reminder) .............................................................................. 82
e) Neg. Obl.: Imposing a vaccine...................................................................................... 82
III. Positive Obligations......................................................................................................... 83
A. Access to personal information.................................................................................... 84
B. Positive obligation to protect........................................................................................ 86
C. Pos. oblig.: protecting the environment........................................................................86
D. Pos. oblig.: climate change........................................................................................... 87
B. Right to Respect Family Life................................................................................................ 89
I. Scope................................................................................................................................ 89
II. Negative Obligations........................................................................................................ 90
III. Positive Obligation.......................................................................................................... 91
Cases and questions............................................................................................................... 93
XI. Freedom of Assembly and Association..................................................................................95
1. Sources............................................................................................................................... 95
2. Freedom of Assembly and Association................................................................................95
i. Scope Art. 11 ECHR........................................................................................................... 95
Scope of Application Constitution........................................................................................ 96
ii. Negative obligation: Dissolution of political party............................................................97
3
, iii. Positive obligation to protect freedom of assembly........................................................98
3. Union Freedom.................................................................................................................... 98
A. Negative obligation.......................................................................................................... 99
B. Positive obligation........................................................................................................... 99
4. Right to strike: protected by Art. 11 ECHR?......................................................................100
A. Negative obligation: Right to strike (ECHR)...................................................................101
B. Negative Obligation: Right to Strike (ECSR)...................................................................102
5. Cases and Questions......................................................................................................... 103
XII. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.................................................................................104
1. Legal Sources.................................................................................................................... 104
A. General Principles......................................................................................................... 104
B. Art. 23 Belgian Constitution (1994):.............................................................................. 104
C. Treaties.......................................................................................................................... 105
D. Relative rights - limitations........................................................................................... 105
E. Protecting the most vulnerable...................................................................................... 106
2. Classical (outdated?) approach......................................................................................... 106
3. Alternative Integrated Approach.......................................................................................... 107
4. ESCR – typology and obligations....................................................................................... 108
A) Traditional typology....................................................................................................... 109
B) Progressive realisation:................................................................................................. 110
i) UN-Committee............................................................................................................. 110
ii) ECSR........................................................................................................................... 111
iii) Belgium..................................................................................................................... 112
C) Core obligations............................................................................................................ 114
Cases and questions............................................................................................................. 114
XIII. Right to Education............................................................................................................. 116
1. Sources............................................................................................................................. 116
i. Scope.................................................................................................................................... 116
3. Dimensions....................................................................................................................... 117
4. Core Obligations............................................................................................................... 117
5. Educational Freedom........................................................................................................ 117
5.A Educational Freedom: Respect religious and philosophical convictions parents..........118
5.B Educational Freedom: Religious and philosophical convictions parents.......................119
6.A Right - Positive obligations : availability and accessibility..............................................120
6.B Right -Positive obligations: free (primary) education......................................................121
Cases and questions............................................................................................................. 122
XVI. Equality and non-discrimination....................................................................................... 123
4
, 1. Sources............................................................................................................................. 123
2. Legal Significance............................................................................................................. 124
3. Typologies......................................................................................................................... 125
a) autonomous................................................................................................................... 125
b) Discrimination.............................................................................................................. 126
c) Equality......................................................................................................................... 128
4. Protected grounds............................................................................................................. 129
1.Exclusively nationality.................................................................................................... 129
2. Migration Status + conditional entry.............................................................................130
3. Race or ethnic origin...................................................................................................... 131
4. Gender........................................................................................................................... 132
5. Gender/old age/young age............................................................................................ 133
5. Added value EU-Charter................................................................................................... 136
Cases and questions............................................................................................................. 137
XV Transversal Issues............................................................................................................... 139
I. Transversal issues.............................................................................................................. 139
1. Human Dignity............................................................................................................... 139
2. Margin of Appreciation................................................................................................... 139
3. Pluralism........................................................................................................................ 142
4. Horizontal Effect - Drittwirkung...................................................................................... 142
5. Hierarchy of Rights........................................................................................................ 142
6. Conflicting rights: balancing rights................................................................................ 143
7. Waiver of Rights............................................................................................................. 143
8. Procedural obligations................................................................................................... 143
9. Other transversal issues................................................................................................ 144
10. Exam............................................................................................................................ 144
11. Questions?................................................................................................................... 145
I. Concept Human rights
1. Terminology
Fundamental Rights and Freedoms
Basic Rights
Refers to the constitution.
Human Rights
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,Why fundamental?
a) Protecting the individual against arbitrary power State
‘the individual’, after WW2.
Evolution:
-acts by the authorities: protecting you against what the state is doing.
-failure to act by the authorities: when they should do something to protect you, is controversial. What states
have to do, is something for democracy, not for judges.
-protection against third parties
b) Protecting human dignity
-> vulnerability
Second important concept; living a life in human dignity, relates to the idea that HR protects the most vulnerable
people (prisoners eg).
Everybody will be in their life a vulnerable person at least once.
Liberal democracy (3 pillars):
We defend the liberal democracy, if we agree to defend that, we have to understand what is and how it functions.
One of the problems now is that people don’t know any more what those concepts mean.
a) Rule of Law
No one is above the law, including those in power (state). Everyone is bounded by it, even the authorities.
b) Democracy
The majority rules, the majority makes the laws.
c) Human Rights
Protecting minorities, vulnerable people. Protecting against the majority rules, the majority isn’t always right.
A mechanism to protect minorities against the majority. It is unsolvable.
Interaction between those three, necessary to explain these definitions, although they are imperfect.
You need to know the simple concepts and explain them simply.
Duties
One-sided emphasis on rights?
15u15
Rights and duties
e.g. African Charter, chapter II(1986)
Art. 27: duties towards family, society, State…
Art. 29: duty to preserve harmonious development of family, to serve national community…
Criticism?
2. Legal sources
- Positive law
Legal sources: general principles, customary law, treaties, constitutions
- Natural law: Human Dignity
We can refer to human dignity, as a human you can refer to human rights ~it’s natural.
Being human suffices to have fundamental rights.
Human dignity in itself is now recognised as a human right.
Article 1 UDHR: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. […]”
Also recognized in various treaties (cf. Art. 1 EU-Charter)
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, - “Universal juridical Conscience” (Inter-American Court of Human Rights)
Natural law; what does everyone think of what the solution is ~natural law.
- European Consensus (will of States) (European Court of Human Rights)
European system: what is European consensus? The will of States is important ~positive law.
In between?: “Law-making treaties”: common interest (instead of pure national State interest), no reciprocity.
Treaties is like a contract between states. The idea of human rights is about a common interest, the whole
community has an interest in protecting those rights. Common interest in protecting the individual.
Interstate cases (Ukraine vs Russia).
The individuals should rely on international treaties. We have those basic rights, but the interpretation of those
rights lead to new rights and rules (essential characteristic of HR).
ECHR – makes sense of those abstract rights.
- “Human dignity”: ambiguous concept
Dwarf tossing is against human dignity (French judge), they prohibited it.
autonomy/self-determination (Anglo-Saxon)
or
‘moral’ public order, we have to defend it – also people against themselves.
people should not be used as an object, but as a subject (Kant)?
- Two conflicting uses of human dignity
Wackenheim: Human Rights Committee
7.4. (seq.) The Committee considers that the State party has demonstrated, in the present case, that the ban on
dwarf tossing as practised by the author did not constitute an abusive measure but was necessary in order to
protect public order, which brings into play considerations of human dignity that are compatible with the
objectives of the Covenant. The Committee accordingly concludes that the differentiation between the author and
the persons to whom the ban ordered by the State party does not apply was based on objective and reasonable
grounds.
- only dwarfs can be thrown in the air not very convincing.
- it’s not discriminatory in its purpose.
- the ban was necessary in order to protect public order (what with prostitution?)
Different approaches of human dignity.
Wackenheim: Should the authorities according to the HRC prohibit dwarf tossing because it is contrary to human
dignity?
France, as a state, protects human dignity in the way they see it. in Belgium, we can have another idea (eg
autonomy). States can have different approaches of human dignity.
If it’s necessary to protect public order, you have to prohibit it.
- Human Dignity according to Nussbaum
M. Nussbaum (“Frontiers of Justice”) identifies a list of central human capabilities that are implicit in the idea of life
worth of human dignity.
You need some capabilities; entire list of them, they are important. Any way of life should be possible, using your
capabilities.
More than functionings.
They support our powers of practical reason and choice, and have a special importance in making any choice of a way of
life possible.
Capabilities should be pursued for each and every person and there is a threshold level of each capability, beneath which
it is held that truly human functioning is not available to citizens.
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, - IACtHR, Yakye Axa v. Paraguay
Right to life (open norm): living a life in dignity
European court doesn’t go so far; because than every state should generate minimum living conditions.
State must generate “minimum living conditions that are compatible with the dignity of the human person” and may not
create “conditions that hinder or impede it” (§68)
“Duty to take positive, concrete measures geared toward fulfillment of the right to a decent life, especially in the case of
persons who are vulnerable and at risk” (§68)
- ECtHR, Haas v. Switzerland
Right to die with dignity?
Is there an obligation for States according to the ECtHR to adopt measures to facilitate the act of suicide with dignity?
Haas case: a person, who was not terminal, but wanted to have a dignified suicide. He needed specific
medications, not a single psychiatrist wanted to give it. Right to life and right to privacy
§52: should he be able to have it?
§53: court – dignified suicide?
§54: duty to protect vulnerable people who want to end their life.
Court emphasises another issue (§55); there is no consensus.
We should have a regulation to prevent abuse (§58).
In order to protect life (art 2) – the decision to end one’s life, is freely and with full understanding. The fact that
you need a psychiatrist.
§61: there is no violation to your right of privacy.
The court is saying (§61): even assuming it (does not mean that it does exists), the Swiss
- Discussions now: euthanasia and dementia. Free consent in advance?
- ECtHR, Camara v. Belgium (p. 5)
Human dignity and the rule of law
Refugee crisis -> no housing for young men. Policy towards refugees.
Not executing provisional housing orders ordered by judges: rule of law in danger!
Rule of law is not always respected, the government did not respect the conclusion of the judge.
According to the Belgian law, we should give housing to refugees. - §8
They waited for 4 months
Human dignity: housing waiting for 4 months is too long §17).
Combination of rule of law and human dignity.
§10, §11, §12 – execution was complex (big increase)
Systemic failure, deficiency, violation of art 6 of EVRM it was a 2023 case – important: Belgium is not
respecting the rule of law, the government is not respecting that.
Non-execution of judicial housing order: How long is too long?
Judicial decision was to protect human dignity!
Not only the thing in asylum cases; also cases about prisoners, noise around Zaventem.
3. Historical perspective
-Before W.W.II: fundamental rights were a national issue
Constitutions
Customary law
-After W.W.II: international perspective
Universal Declaration Fundamental Rights 1948
International Treaties
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,Three generations of human rights:
- Civil and political rights -blue
Freedom of speech,
Favoured by the west
- Economic, social and cultural rights -red
- Collective/Solidarity rights -green
Right to peace, environment (for collectively)
Criticism: Interdependent! Indivisible! (IACtHR, Yakye Axa)
you cannot separate those different rights, we should consider them interdependent.
Relativity:
- cultural concept: Western (there isn’t an Asian concept of human rights)
- social: Bourgeois often they are protecting middle class, poor people don’t have the money to go to court. Huge
criticism; in economics – Matheuseffect.
HR: should be about changing mentalities, solutions without going to court.
- Treaties: first rights, but more and more effective enforcement mechanisms.
o ECRH
- Humanisation of the law (not only the will of States): objective law
o Protecting people because they are people.
Historical perspective: and now?
- Only protecting individuals? Quid groups, legal persons, animals, nature…?
- Only against State authorities? Quid multinationals, supranational authorities…?
4. (No) Hierarchy
absolute – relative rights-> but all required to guarantee human dignity
no hierarchy; you need every right
abs: allow for no-interference, no justification
rel: can be limited, with a justification (by a law, legitimate aim and in proportion). The rel rights can have a core
distinction in the treaties
Criterion?
- most fundamental/basic rights? (cf. “core rights”)
- See treaties:
-limitation clause
-Derogations in time of emergency (art. 15 ECHR)
II. Universal Protection (United Nations)
Multilateral view of the world.
15u35
1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR dec 10 1948)
- legal value?
Soft law, cannot be enforced because it’s a declaration. Not binding.
States who obtained: 6 communist, USSR, S-A and Saudi-Arabia
- enforcement mechanism?
If a state has not adopted any of the UN treaties, the UDHR will be used.
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, - Civil-Political Rights and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
Two first generations of rights are in the first important international HR document.
2. Treaties
9 Basic Human Rights Treaties
2 basic treaties
1. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966)
o Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR-OP1, 1966)
o Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the
abolition of the death penalty (ICCPR-OP2, 1989)
2. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1966)
Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2008)
Treaties based on themes
3. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD, 1965)
4. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW, 1979)
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW-
OP, 1999)
5. Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT, 1984)
Optional Protocol to the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment (CAT-OP, 2002)
6. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC, 1989)
Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child
prostitution and child pornography (OP-CRC-SC, 2000)
Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in
armed conflict (OP-CRC-AC, 2000)
Optional protocol to the CRC to provide a communications procedure (2011)
7. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrants Workers and Members of Their
Families (CMW, 1990)
8. International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (2006)
9. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
Optional protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006)
-Check Ratification Status!-> quid Belgium?
Not signed in Belgium: CMW, 1990
Most of the other treaties are truly universal, have been ratified.
-Check Entry into force!
Belgium has accepted all the enforcement mechanisms.
-https://treaties.un.org
(or via www.ohchr.org)
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