European integration since 1945
1
,Chapter 1: Why is there No European Army yet?
1.1 The Cold War
During World War II (1939–1945):
• 30 September 1989, the Nazi’s were at first very successful in Munich. GB and
France next to two fascistic leaders Hitler and Mussolini.
à Concessions were made to stop Germany and Italy, but Hitler and Mussolini
saw these concessions as weakness, not strength.
• In 1939, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was signed between Nazi Germany
and the Soviet Union, agreeing not to attack each other.
à This allowed Hitler to invade Poland, starting WWII.
It’s coming back now: two great powers deciding over the Eastern European
countries, just like what might happen again between Trump and Putin. It’s a
trauma for countries like Latvia, Lithuania, and others.
In 1941, Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union.
(After the Blitzkrieg (1940) in the West)
• WWII ended with Nazi Germany’s unconditional surrender to the Soviet Union.
The Allies (mainly the US and the USSR) aimed to:
• Defeat Nazism and Fascism.
• Shape the post-war world based on lessons from the failed League of Nations.
Creation of the United Nations (UN):
• Proposed during the 1943 Moscow Conference.
• Built on principles of sovereign equality and collective security.
• 1945: 850 delegates from 50 countries founded the UN.
• The UN Security Council (UNSC) had 5 permanent members (China,
France, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, United States) with veto power.
• 6 rotating non-permanent members (expanded to 10 in 1965).
Yalta Conference – February 1945:
Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill gather discuss the spheres of influence regarding the
organization of a post-war Germany and broader Europe. (Stalin confirms the
participation of the Soviet Union in the UN, an essential condition for the success
of the new international organization!)
2
,Civil war breaks out in Greece – March 1946:
Soviet Union is not happy whit his own position, but he holds some pretty good cards
with regards to the West. Due to their pivotal role in defeating Germany, the
communists enjoy great prestige in the immediate aftermath of the war. (Annexation
of the Baltic states and a piece of Finland)
After the war, Moscow becomes involved in the Greek Civil War and the
communist coup in Czechoslovakia.
Cold War tensions:
• Western Allies delayed opening the Western Front, increasing Stalin’s
mistrust.
• Stalin annexed the Baltic States and parts of Finland.
• Communist uprisings occurred in Greece and Czechoslovakia.
• The Soviet Union frequently used its UN veto.
Feeling: a new era of peace
→ the opposite is true: Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union
The West waits a very long time to open a western front on European territory, while the
Soviet Union has already been in direct and permanent confrontation with Hitler’s troops
since 1941. Only with the western front (D-Day landings in Normandy) in 1944 does the
pressure from Nazi Germany on the Soviet Union decrease. à Stalin’s distrust of the
West’s motives.
Also distrust from the West:
Stalin annexes the Baltic States and part of Finland during the war. He is involved in the
civil war in Greece and a communist coup in Czechoslovakia. He frequently uses his veto
power in the UN.
Nous avons peur – Paul-Hendri Spaak
Spaak is not eager to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and he is
initially lackluster regarding the economic help that the US offers European countries,
through the Marshall Plan. Spaak concludes that he is forced to choose sides.
3
,Berlin Blockade (June 1948 – May 1949)
Precisely because of – these good results, the West also grows suspicious. They
need security guaranties to keep the Russians out, push the Germans down and
keep the Americans in! (NATO)
Response:
• 1949: Founding of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).
o Collective defense clause: an attack on one member is an attack on all.
o Founding members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, UK, US.
• 1952: Greece and Turkey joined NATO.
• Soviet counteraction: Warsaw Pact (1955), uniting Eastern Bloc countries.
• The Cold War became deeply institutionalized across Europe.
2016: New Cold War paradigm.
1.2 Pan-Europe
After WWII, the idea of European integration gained popularity:
• Nation-states were seen as too small to tackle global challenges.
• Europe needed economic strength against the US and USSR.
Earlier movements:
• 1923: Pan-European Movement proposed integration in coal, iron, and mining
industries, and a European passport.
• 1929: Briand-Kellogg Pact aimed to replace war with peaceful dispute
resolution — but ultimately failed.
4
, 1.3 Franco-German Reconciliation
The relationship between France and occupied Germany was delicate:
• Secret meetings on neutral ground were necessary.
• Transnational party-political networks helped speed up integration.
Key figures:
• Winston Churchill supported strong transatlantic ties and promoted Franco-
German reconciliation as a foundation for a "United States of Europe."
• Goal: Reintegration of West Germany and reduction of French mistrust.
Milestone:
• 1963: Élysée Treaty between German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and
French President Charles de Gaulle, sealing the Franco-German friendship.
1.4 The Benelux Example
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg pioneered regional integration:
• Uniform payment traffic.
• Strengthened economic relations.
• Creation of a customs union.
Timeline:
• 1921: Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union (Bleu)
à strive to achieve a single currency and custom union.
• 1944: Benelux Agreement.
• 1948: Formation of the Benelux Customs Union.
• 1958: Transformation into the Benelux Economic Union:
o Common trade policy with third countries.
o Coordination of economic, financial, and social policies.
o Free movement of goods, services, people, and capital.
Significance:
• First voluntary postwar international cooperation between sovereign states.
• Established independent institutions: ministerial committee, general
secretariat, court, parliament.
• Served as an inspiration for the European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) and later the European Union (EU).
5
1
,Chapter 1: Why is there No European Army yet?
1.1 The Cold War
During World War II (1939–1945):
• 30 September 1989, the Nazi’s were at first very successful in Munich. GB and
France next to two fascistic leaders Hitler and Mussolini.
à Concessions were made to stop Germany and Italy, but Hitler and Mussolini
saw these concessions as weakness, not strength.
• In 1939, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was signed between Nazi Germany
and the Soviet Union, agreeing not to attack each other.
à This allowed Hitler to invade Poland, starting WWII.
It’s coming back now: two great powers deciding over the Eastern European
countries, just like what might happen again between Trump and Putin. It’s a
trauma for countries like Latvia, Lithuania, and others.
In 1941, Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union.
(After the Blitzkrieg (1940) in the West)
• WWII ended with Nazi Germany’s unconditional surrender to the Soviet Union.
The Allies (mainly the US and the USSR) aimed to:
• Defeat Nazism and Fascism.
• Shape the post-war world based on lessons from the failed League of Nations.
Creation of the United Nations (UN):
• Proposed during the 1943 Moscow Conference.
• Built on principles of sovereign equality and collective security.
• 1945: 850 delegates from 50 countries founded the UN.
• The UN Security Council (UNSC) had 5 permanent members (China,
France, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, United States) with veto power.
• 6 rotating non-permanent members (expanded to 10 in 1965).
Yalta Conference – February 1945:
Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill gather discuss the spheres of influence regarding the
organization of a post-war Germany and broader Europe. (Stalin confirms the
participation of the Soviet Union in the UN, an essential condition for the success
of the new international organization!)
2
,Civil war breaks out in Greece – March 1946:
Soviet Union is not happy whit his own position, but he holds some pretty good cards
with regards to the West. Due to their pivotal role in defeating Germany, the
communists enjoy great prestige in the immediate aftermath of the war. (Annexation
of the Baltic states and a piece of Finland)
After the war, Moscow becomes involved in the Greek Civil War and the
communist coup in Czechoslovakia.
Cold War tensions:
• Western Allies delayed opening the Western Front, increasing Stalin’s
mistrust.
• Stalin annexed the Baltic States and parts of Finland.
• Communist uprisings occurred in Greece and Czechoslovakia.
• The Soviet Union frequently used its UN veto.
Feeling: a new era of peace
→ the opposite is true: Cold War between the US and the Soviet Union
The West waits a very long time to open a western front on European territory, while the
Soviet Union has already been in direct and permanent confrontation with Hitler’s troops
since 1941. Only with the western front (D-Day landings in Normandy) in 1944 does the
pressure from Nazi Germany on the Soviet Union decrease. à Stalin’s distrust of the
West’s motives.
Also distrust from the West:
Stalin annexes the Baltic States and part of Finland during the war. He is involved in the
civil war in Greece and a communist coup in Czechoslovakia. He frequently uses his veto
power in the UN.
Nous avons peur – Paul-Hendri Spaak
Spaak is not eager to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and he is
initially lackluster regarding the economic help that the US offers European countries,
through the Marshall Plan. Spaak concludes that he is forced to choose sides.
3
,Berlin Blockade (June 1948 – May 1949)
Precisely because of – these good results, the West also grows suspicious. They
need security guaranties to keep the Russians out, push the Germans down and
keep the Americans in! (NATO)
Response:
• 1949: Founding of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).
o Collective defense clause: an attack on one member is an attack on all.
o Founding members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,
Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, UK, US.
• 1952: Greece and Turkey joined NATO.
• Soviet counteraction: Warsaw Pact (1955), uniting Eastern Bloc countries.
• The Cold War became deeply institutionalized across Europe.
2016: New Cold War paradigm.
1.2 Pan-Europe
After WWII, the idea of European integration gained popularity:
• Nation-states were seen as too small to tackle global challenges.
• Europe needed economic strength against the US and USSR.
Earlier movements:
• 1923: Pan-European Movement proposed integration in coal, iron, and mining
industries, and a European passport.
• 1929: Briand-Kellogg Pact aimed to replace war with peaceful dispute
resolution — but ultimately failed.
4
, 1.3 Franco-German Reconciliation
The relationship between France and occupied Germany was delicate:
• Secret meetings on neutral ground were necessary.
• Transnational party-political networks helped speed up integration.
Key figures:
• Winston Churchill supported strong transatlantic ties and promoted Franco-
German reconciliation as a foundation for a "United States of Europe."
• Goal: Reintegration of West Germany and reduction of French mistrust.
Milestone:
• 1963: Élysée Treaty between German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and
French President Charles de Gaulle, sealing the Franco-German friendship.
1.4 The Benelux Example
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg pioneered regional integration:
• Uniform payment traffic.
• Strengthened economic relations.
• Creation of a customs union.
Timeline:
• 1921: Belgian-Luxembourg Economic Union (Bleu)
à strive to achieve a single currency and custom union.
• 1944: Benelux Agreement.
• 1948: Formation of the Benelux Customs Union.
• 1958: Transformation into the Benelux Economic Union:
o Common trade policy with third countries.
o Coordination of economic, financial, and social policies.
o Free movement of goods, services, people, and capital.
Significance:
• First voluntary postwar international cooperation between sovereign states.
• Established independent institutions: ministerial committee, general
secretariat, court, parliament.
• Served as an inspiration for the European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) and later the European Union (EU).
5
