1
,Inhoud
Introductie................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Studiemateriaal:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Examen:...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Hoofdstuk 1: Media-effecten.................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Inleiding.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.2 Hoe beïnvloeden media individuen?..............................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.2.1 Ways of knowing...................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.2.1.1 Vorm van paniek over effecten van media in huidige samenleving..............................................................................................................................9
1.3 Media-effecten in huidige samenleving.......................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.4 Ways of knowing – Wetenschap..................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.4.1 Doelen vd wetenschap.........................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.4.2 Hoe worden die doelen bereikt?..........................................................................................................................................................................................11
1.5 Geschiedenis van media-effecten onderzoek...............................................................................................................................................................................12
1.6 Effectgroottes in media-effecten onderzoek................................................................................................................................................................................12
1.7 Vijf uitdagingen voor toekomst media-effecten onderzoek.........................................................................................................................................................13
Hoofdstuk 2: Onderzoeksmethoden in media-effecten onderzoek..........................................................................................................................16
2.1 Inhoudsanalyse.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
2.1.1 Inhoudsanalyse - social media.............................................................................................................................................................................................16
2.2 Survey..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
2.2.1 Survey – social media..........................................................................................................................................................................................................18
2.2.2 Zoektocht naar causale verbanden.......................................................................................................................................................................................19
2.3 Experiment...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
2.3.1 Experiment – Tv..................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
2.3.2 Controverse..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
2.3.3 Alternatieven voor dit probleem:.........................................................................................................................................................................................21
Hoofdstuk 3: Agendasetting................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Agendasetting...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................23
3.1.1 Nieuws en politiek...............................................................................................................................................................................................................23
3.2 Historische context.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................23
3.2.1 Het onderzoek sindsdien......................................................................................................................................................................................................24
3.2.2 Acapulco typlogie................................................................................................................................................................................................................25
3.3 Agendasetting niveaus..................................................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.3.1 Voorbeelden niveau 2..........................................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.4 Need for orientation (NFO)..........................................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.5 Gevolgen van agendasetting effecten...........................................................................................................................................................................................27
3.6 Artikel – COVID19 (derde niveau)..............................................................................................................................................................................................27
3.6.1 Bepaalde onderzoekvragen..................................................................................................................................................................................................28
3.6.2 Methode:..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
3.6.3 Resultaten:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
3.6.4 Mogelijke limitaties.............................................................................................................................................................................................................29
Hoofdstuk 4: Framing............................................................................................................................................................................................ 30
4.1 Nieuws framing............................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.1.1 Framing – BLM...................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.1.2 Framing – Migratie..............................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.2 Disciplinaire oorsprong................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.2.1 Sociologische roots (macro-level benadering)....................................................................................................................................................................30
2
, 4.2.2 Psychologische roots (micro-level benadering)..................................................................................................................................................................31
4.3 Verwante, maar andere processen................................................................................................................................................................................................31
4.4 Framing in communicatie onderzoek...........................................................................................................................................................................................32
4.4.1 Frame building: frames als afhankelijke variabele..............................................................................................................................................................32
4.4.2 Frame setting: frames als onafhankelijke variabele............................................................................................................................................................33
4.5 Problemen....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
4.6 Effect van nieuwsframes: Conflict tussen Hezbollah & Israël tijdens oorlog Lebanon in 2006.................................................................................................34
4.6.1 Methode:..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
4.6.2 Resultaten:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
4.6.3 Discussie:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
4.6.4 Conclusie.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
Hoofdstuk 5: Cultivation theory............................................................................................................................................................................. 37
5.1 Cultivation theory........................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
5.2 TV in de maatschappij.................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
5.3 Shift van effecten naar cultivatie..................................................................................................................................................................................................38
5.4 Cultivatie onderzoek....................................................................................................................................................................................................................38
5.4.1 Voorbeeld geweld op tv.......................................................................................................................................................................................................38
5.4.2 Hoe kunnen cultivatie effecten verklaard worden?.............................................................................................................................................................38
5.5 Mainstreaming.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
5.6 Internationale context...................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
5.7 Cultivatie onderzoek....................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
5.8 Cultivation theory in de 21ste eeuw.............................................................................................................................................................................................40
5.9 Social cognition (uitbreiding cultivation effects): inleiding........................................................................................................................................................40
5.9.1 Social cognition...................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
5.9.2 Media-effecten en toegankelijkheid....................................................................................................................................................................................41
5.9.3 Cultivatie effecten – psychologische processen..................................................................................................................................................................41
5.9.3.4 Process model van cultivatie effecten:........................................................................................................................................................................41
5.10 Second order model...................................................................................................................................................................................................................43
Hoofdstuk 6: Priming............................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
6.1 Priming.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.1.1 Media priming.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.1.2 Media geweld en priming....................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.1.3 Politieke media en priming..................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.2 Media en stereotypen...................................................................................................................................................................................................................46
6.2.1 Voorbeeld: media en stereotypen.........................................................................................................................................................................................46
6.3 Modellen die priming uitleggen...................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.3.1 Twee karakteristieken van priming:.....................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4 Modellen die priming uitleggen...................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4.1 Geweld.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4.2 Politiek.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4.3 Voorgaande modellen..........................................................................................................................................................................................................48
6.4.4 Alternatieve modellen: mentale modellen...........................................................................................................................................................................48
6.4.5 Conclusie.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................48
Hoofdstuk 7: Elaboration likelihood model............................................................................................................................................................50
7.1 Advertenties:................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50
7.2 Massamedia overtuiging..............................................................................................................................................................................................................50
7.3 Media campagnes & attitudes......................................................................................................................................................................................................50
7.4 Theorieën rond attitudeverandering.............................................................................................................................................................................................51
3
, 7.4.1 The Communication / Persuasion Matrix Model of Media effects (McGuire)...................................................................................................................51
7.4.2 Cognitive Response Theory (CRT).....................................................................................................................................................................................51
7.4.3 Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)................................................................................................................................................................................52
7.5 Invloed op hoeveel we denken.....................................................................................................................................................................................................53
7.5.1 Systematisch denken stimuleren:........................................................................................................................................................................................53
7.5.2 Worden er voornamelijk positieve of negatieve gedachten opgeroepen?...........................................................................................................................53
7.6 Dezelfde elementen kunnen verschillende rollen spelen.............................................................................................................................................................54
7.6.1 Recap...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
7.7 Uitdagingen voor toekomstig onderzoek.....................................................................................................................................................................................57
Hoofdstuk 8: social cognitive theory......................................................................................................................................................................58
8.1 Social cognitive theory.................................................................................................................................................................................................................58
8.1.1 Relevant voor media-effecten:.............................................................................................................................................................................................59
8.1.2 Bobo Doll experiment:........................................................................................................................................................................................................59
8.2 Social cognitive theory – agency.................................................................................................................................................................................................59
8.3 Mechanismen van observationeel leren.......................................................................................................................................................................................60
8.3.1 Vier functies of fasen:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................60
8.4 Abstract modeling........................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
8.5 Vicarious arousal..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
8.6 Motivational effects.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
8.6.1 Voorbeeld geweld op tv adhv het model..............................................................................................................................................................................63
8.7 Constructie sociale werkelijkheid & social prompting................................................................................................................................................................63
8.7.1 Methode onderzoek.............................................................................................................................................................................................................64
8.8 Dual link vs multipattern flow of influence.................................................................................................................................................................................64
8.9 REFLECTIE THEORIE...............................................................................................................................................................................................................65
8.9.1 Ongewenste en gewenste effecten.......................................................................................................................................................................................65
8.9.2 Toekomst van Social Cognitive Theory onderzoek.............................................................................................................................................................65
Hoofdstuk 9: Uses and gratifications......................................................................................................................................................................67
9.1 Uses and gratifications (U&G)....................................................................................................................................................................................................67
9.1.1 Psychologisch perspectief:..................................................................................................................................................................................................67
9.1.2 Functionele benadering........................................................................................................................................................................................................68
9.2 Uses- and –gratifications paradigma............................................................................................................................................................................................68
9.3 Typologieën..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
9.4 Kritiek..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
9.5 Hedendaagse studies....................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
9.6 Media uses & effects....................................................................................................................................................................................................................70
9.7 Pornografiegebruik tijdens de COVID-19 pandemie...................................................................................................................................................................71
9.7.1 Pornografiegebruik tijdens de COVID-19 pandemie (H1)..................................................................................................................................................71
9.7.2 Individuele verschillen (H2)................................................................................................................................................................................................71
9.8 Contextualiseren van pornografiegebruik (RQ1 & RQ2)............................................................................................................................................................71
9.8.1 Methode...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
9.8.2 Resultaten............................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
Hoofdstuk 10: Uses and gratifications in food media.............................................................................................................................................73
10.1 Inleiding.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................73
10.2 Food media linken met:..............................................................................................................................................................................................................73
10.3 Studie 1: Wat zijn food media?..................................................................................................................................................................................................73
10.4 Waarom kiezen we ervoor om met food media om te gaan?.....................................................................................................................................................73
10.4.1 Model van Palmgreen:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................74
10.4.2 Handvol studies die over voeding en U&G gaan..............................................................................................................................................................74
4
,Inhoud
Introductie................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 8
Studiemateriaal:...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Examen:...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Hoofdstuk 1: Media-effecten.................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Inleiding.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.2 Hoe beïnvloeden media individuen?..............................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.2.1 Ways of knowing...................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.2.1.1 Vorm van paniek over effecten van media in huidige samenleving..............................................................................................................................9
1.3 Media-effecten in huidige samenleving.......................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.4 Ways of knowing – Wetenschap..................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.4.1 Doelen vd wetenschap.........................................................................................................................................................................................................10
1.4.2 Hoe worden die doelen bereikt?..........................................................................................................................................................................................11
1.5 Geschiedenis van media-effecten onderzoek...............................................................................................................................................................................12
1.6 Effectgroottes in media-effecten onderzoek................................................................................................................................................................................12
1.7 Vijf uitdagingen voor toekomst media-effecten onderzoek.........................................................................................................................................................13
Hoofdstuk 2: Onderzoeksmethoden in media-effecten onderzoek..........................................................................................................................16
2.1 Inhoudsanalyse.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
2.1.1 Inhoudsanalyse - social media.............................................................................................................................................................................................16
2.2 Survey..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
2.2.1 Survey – social media..........................................................................................................................................................................................................18
2.2.2 Zoektocht naar causale verbanden.......................................................................................................................................................................................19
2.3 Experiment...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
2.3.1 Experiment – Tv..................................................................................................................................................................................................................20
2.3.2 Controverse..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
2.3.3 Alternatieven voor dit probleem:.........................................................................................................................................................................................21
Hoofdstuk 3: Agendasetting................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1 Agendasetting...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................23
3.1.1 Nieuws en politiek...............................................................................................................................................................................................................23
3.2 Historische context.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................23
3.2.1 Het onderzoek sindsdien......................................................................................................................................................................................................24
3.2.2 Acapulco typlogie................................................................................................................................................................................................................25
3.3 Agendasetting niveaus..................................................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.3.1 Voorbeelden niveau 2..........................................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.4 Need for orientation (NFO)..........................................................................................................................................................................................................26
3.5 Gevolgen van agendasetting effecten...........................................................................................................................................................................................27
3.6 Artikel – COVID19 (derde niveau)..............................................................................................................................................................................................27
3.6.1 Bepaalde onderzoekvragen..................................................................................................................................................................................................28
3.6.2 Methode:..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
3.6.3 Resultaten:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
3.6.4 Mogelijke limitaties.............................................................................................................................................................................................................29
Hoofdstuk 4: Framing............................................................................................................................................................................................ 30
4.1 Nieuws framing............................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.1.1 Framing – BLM...................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.1.2 Framing – Migratie..............................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.2 Disciplinaire oorsprong................................................................................................................................................................................................................30
4.2.1 Sociologische roots (macro-level benadering)....................................................................................................................................................................30
2
, 4.2.2 Psychologische roots (micro-level benadering)..................................................................................................................................................................31
4.3 Verwante, maar andere processen................................................................................................................................................................................................31
4.4 Framing in communicatie onderzoek...........................................................................................................................................................................................32
4.4.1 Frame building: frames als afhankelijke variabele..............................................................................................................................................................32
4.4.2 Frame setting: frames als onafhankelijke variabele............................................................................................................................................................33
4.5 Problemen....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
4.6 Effect van nieuwsframes: Conflict tussen Hezbollah & Israël tijdens oorlog Lebanon in 2006.................................................................................................34
4.6.1 Methode:..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................34
4.6.2 Resultaten:...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
4.6.3 Discussie:.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
4.6.4 Conclusie.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................35
Hoofdstuk 5: Cultivation theory............................................................................................................................................................................. 37
5.1 Cultivation theory........................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
5.2 TV in de maatschappij.................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
5.3 Shift van effecten naar cultivatie..................................................................................................................................................................................................38
5.4 Cultivatie onderzoek....................................................................................................................................................................................................................38
5.4.1 Voorbeeld geweld op tv.......................................................................................................................................................................................................38
5.4.2 Hoe kunnen cultivatie effecten verklaard worden?.............................................................................................................................................................38
5.5 Mainstreaming.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
5.6 Internationale context...................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
5.7 Cultivatie onderzoek....................................................................................................................................................................................................................39
5.8 Cultivation theory in de 21ste eeuw.............................................................................................................................................................................................40
5.9 Social cognition (uitbreiding cultivation effects): inleiding........................................................................................................................................................40
5.9.1 Social cognition...................................................................................................................................................................................................................40
5.9.2 Media-effecten en toegankelijkheid....................................................................................................................................................................................41
5.9.3 Cultivatie effecten – psychologische processen..................................................................................................................................................................41
5.9.3.4 Process model van cultivatie effecten:........................................................................................................................................................................41
5.10 Second order model...................................................................................................................................................................................................................43
Hoofdstuk 6: Priming............................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
6.1 Priming.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.1.1 Media priming.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.1.2 Media geweld en priming....................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.1.3 Politieke media en priming..................................................................................................................................................................................................45
6.2 Media en stereotypen...................................................................................................................................................................................................................46
6.2.1 Voorbeeld: media en stereotypen.........................................................................................................................................................................................46
6.3 Modellen die priming uitleggen...................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.3.1 Twee karakteristieken van priming:.....................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4 Modellen die priming uitleggen...................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4.1 Geweld.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4.2 Politiek.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................47
6.4.3 Voorgaande modellen..........................................................................................................................................................................................................48
6.4.4 Alternatieve modellen: mentale modellen...........................................................................................................................................................................48
6.4.5 Conclusie.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................48
Hoofdstuk 7: Elaboration likelihood model............................................................................................................................................................50
7.1 Advertenties:................................................................................................................................................................................................................................50
7.2 Massamedia overtuiging..............................................................................................................................................................................................................50
7.3 Media campagnes & attitudes......................................................................................................................................................................................................50
7.4 Theorieën rond attitudeverandering.............................................................................................................................................................................................51
3
, 7.4.1 The Communication / Persuasion Matrix Model of Media effects (McGuire)...................................................................................................................51
7.4.2 Cognitive Response Theory (CRT).....................................................................................................................................................................................51
7.4.3 Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)................................................................................................................................................................................52
7.5 Invloed op hoeveel we denken.....................................................................................................................................................................................................53
7.5.1 Systematisch denken stimuleren:........................................................................................................................................................................................53
7.5.2 Worden er voornamelijk positieve of negatieve gedachten opgeroepen?...........................................................................................................................53
7.6 Dezelfde elementen kunnen verschillende rollen spelen.............................................................................................................................................................54
7.6.1 Recap...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................55
7.7 Uitdagingen voor toekomstig onderzoek.....................................................................................................................................................................................57
Hoofdstuk 8: social cognitive theory......................................................................................................................................................................58
8.1 Social cognitive theory.................................................................................................................................................................................................................58
8.1.1 Relevant voor media-effecten:.............................................................................................................................................................................................59
8.1.2 Bobo Doll experiment:........................................................................................................................................................................................................59
8.2 Social cognitive theory – agency.................................................................................................................................................................................................59
8.3 Mechanismen van observationeel leren.......................................................................................................................................................................................60
8.3.1 Vier functies of fasen:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................60
8.4 Abstract modeling........................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
8.5 Vicarious arousal..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
8.6 Motivational effects.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
8.6.1 Voorbeeld geweld op tv adhv het model..............................................................................................................................................................................63
8.7 Constructie sociale werkelijkheid & social prompting................................................................................................................................................................63
8.7.1 Methode onderzoek.............................................................................................................................................................................................................64
8.8 Dual link vs multipattern flow of influence.................................................................................................................................................................................64
8.9 REFLECTIE THEORIE...............................................................................................................................................................................................................65
8.9.1 Ongewenste en gewenste effecten.......................................................................................................................................................................................65
8.9.2 Toekomst van Social Cognitive Theory onderzoek.............................................................................................................................................................65
Hoofdstuk 9: Uses and gratifications......................................................................................................................................................................67
9.1 Uses and gratifications (U&G)....................................................................................................................................................................................................67
9.1.1 Psychologisch perspectief:..................................................................................................................................................................................................67
9.1.2 Functionele benadering........................................................................................................................................................................................................68
9.2 Uses- and –gratifications paradigma............................................................................................................................................................................................68
9.3 Typologieën..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
9.4 Kritiek..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
9.5 Hedendaagse studies....................................................................................................................................................................................................................69
9.6 Media uses & effects....................................................................................................................................................................................................................70
9.7 Pornografiegebruik tijdens de COVID-19 pandemie...................................................................................................................................................................71
9.7.1 Pornografiegebruik tijdens de COVID-19 pandemie (H1)..................................................................................................................................................71
9.7.2 Individuele verschillen (H2)................................................................................................................................................................................................71
9.8 Contextualiseren van pornografiegebruik (RQ1 & RQ2)............................................................................................................................................................71
9.8.1 Methode...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
9.8.2 Resultaten............................................................................................................................................................................................................................71
Hoofdstuk 10: Uses and gratifications in food media.............................................................................................................................................73
10.1 Inleiding.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................73
10.2 Food media linken met:..............................................................................................................................................................................................................73
10.3 Studie 1: Wat zijn food media?..................................................................................................................................................................................................73
10.4 Waarom kiezen we ervoor om met food media om te gaan?.....................................................................................................................................................73
10.4.1 Model van Palmgreen:.......................................................................................................................................................................................................74
10.4.2 Handvol studies die over voeding en U&G gaan..............................................................................................................................................................74
4
