BRITAIN ESSAY PLANS ALL SOLUTION 100% CORRECT SPRING FALL-2023/24 EDITION GUARANTEED GRADE A+

to what extent did the political landscape change 1918-79? ARGUMENT- changes massively, war most prominent change PARA 1- rise of labour+decline of the liberals. Lloyd-george outed asquith, seen as traitor. caused a split in the liberals, failed to reunite for 1918 election. Tories rejected coalition, allowed labour to rise. ww1 led to more trade union members, no more fptp. labour became the main opposition in 1929, parties shared the goal of getting rid of liberals PARA 2- ww2. the war led to a cabinet of five men (including atlee) who ran the country. atlee came up with nationalisation-governments aim taking ownership of industries. this was accepted by conservatives who without the war would've viewed it as 'socialist'. atlee shifted from socialist revolution to building on his experience of war time planning. war brought tories and lab together in a 'national government' -foundation for 'post-war consensus'. labour 1945 manifesto 'let us face the future' in touch with state-led solutions, led to a labour landslide. conservative defeat. poor industrial relations record over issues such as the general strike+ blame for depression led people to vote labour. churchill was over-confident, campaigned slagging off labour party. beveridge report 1945 influenced 650,000 people meant labour were more in tune with demands than the conservatives. PARA 3- economic circumstances. 1929 wall street crash led to a global decline in trade+production. people supported Ramsey McDonald and the NG, conservatives and labour ministers were brought together. conservatives started looking at free-market solutions due to the keynesian theory that governments should borrow in times of need and spend to stimulate economic growth. also disregarded the view that the government should not be involved. How far do you agree that the landslide victory of the Labour Party in 1945 was only possible because of Britain's experience of the Second World War ARGUMENT- PARA 1-experience of ww2. led to a change in public attitudes and gov. attitudes. The 'total war' required the gov. to seek 'total solutions' and led to unprecedented expansion of the power of the state+increased levels of centralised state control. E.g. Emergency Powers Act 1940 extended the governments emergency powers. rationing, evacuations, + centralised economic management;this expansion of state control = new public expectation that state would play larger role in society. Shared experiences contributed to changing zeitgeist+growth of collectivist and universalist attitudes: the evacuation of 3 million inner-city children: the m/c's & u/c's witnessed poverty first-hand the experiences of the shared suffering, the rationing, & war work all contributed. War had a devastating physical impact both on people & infrastructure of Britain:urgent need for post-war reconstruction: 2 in 7 houses destroyed by bombing in opinion polls, 41% of public saw housing as biggest challenge facing post-war Britain reform of health service was necessary: pre-war, 41% of soldiers were found to be unfit for combat &post-war the mass injuries/casualties necessitated a radical restructuring of health provision. A growing desire for radical post-war reconstruction led by an interventionist government:the public were eager for change & would not be content to a return to the laissez-faire approaches &restricted government spending of the inter-war years. PARA 2-appeal of labour. Labour capitalised on shifting their view+in their manifesto, 'Let Us Face the Future' proposed a radical overhaul of society along socialist, collectivist+universal lines:this manifesto presented a progressive vision of a post-war Britain that was in tune with social desire for reform. the manifesto mirrored post-war zeitgeist by proposing unprecedented programme of social reforms. Labour's ideas were influenced by the wildly popular Beveridge Report (1942) which had called on gov.'s to take action to tackle the 'Five Giants' that plagued society = the report sold 630,000 copies during the war. Labour proposed a National Health Service, Family Allowances, National Insurance, & housing. Leading Labour figures - gained valuable experience as wartime ministers+now seen as a credible 'government-in-waiting' who had skills & experience necessary to steer Britain through difficulties of post-war reconstruction:Attlee served as Churchill's Deputy Prime Minister,Herbert Morrisson served as Home Secretary, & Ernest Bevin as Minister. Labour's 'landslide' attributed to electoral system (FPTP) - inflated their popularity:FPTP benefits parties with a strongly concentrated support base - as Labour's support was strongly concentrated in urban & industrial areas, easily able to win these constituencies while Labour were very popular in 1945 they were over-represented in parliament:1945: 47.7% of the vote translated into 61.4% of the seats (and thus they gained a majority). PARA 3-Conservative Party contributed to their own downfall in 1945:Tory leaders had been in office for a very long time (almost continually since 1922)+the leading Conservative figures appeared tired, old, & lacking in new ideas. the party campaign emphasised need for a return to stability & tradition-these ideas were not compatible with the public appetite for reform. The Tories were negatively associated with the hard times+austerity of the 1930s:many did not want a return to the harsh laissez-faire & non-interventionist economic policies of the inter-war years. the Tories were negatively associated with the unpopular spending cuts of the 1930s-National Economy Act (1931) & the hated 'means test' used to deny access to unemployment support to thousands. many looked back to the 1930s (known as the 'Hungry Thirties') determined to build a more egalitarian& fair society after WW2. How accurate is it to say that, in the years 1945-79, there were very limited differences in the policies of the Conservative and Labour parties? PARA 1-consensus (similarities in policy). Both parties remained committed to the central aspects of the welfare state, such as the National Health Service. Both parties largely remained wedded to the policies influenced by the ideas of John Maynard Keynes and William Beveridge (both Liberals). After the limited denationalisations of 1951, both accepted nationalised industry to some degree. Both parties remained committed to full employment as a central objective of economic policy until 1975. Both parties were anxious to appease the trade unions until the late 1960s, from which time both came to see the need for legislation. PARA 2-Disagreement over issues such as nationalisation and rationing were evident in the elections of 1950 and 1951. In education, the Labour Party sought to end the tripartite system with Circular 10/65 (Crosland Circular), which the Conservative government from 1970 sought to replace with Circular 10/70. The degree of hostility between the trade unions and Conservatives can be seen to have been greater than that with Labour (from the Heath government onwards). The polarisation that took place in the 1970s within and across both the two main parties. To what extent were Labour and Conservative governments successful in tackling the economic problems faced by Britain in the years 1945-79 PARA 1- legacy of ww2. The National government of 1939 had no reservations about interfering in people's lives as far as was necessary to wage total war. Rationing and conscription were introduced immediately. Registration for employment was made compulsory in 1941; the government issued around 8.5 million Essential Work Orders, which forced people to do particular jobs by 1945 -- 3.2 million people had worked in munitions, 4 million in other war work, and 5.5 million had been conscripted in 1944 -- the government declared its long term responsibility for the maintenance of high employment. Keynesianism- rather than aim to balance the budgets in hard times, the government should borrow and spend more money to stimulate a recovery. PARA 2-Conservatives. Short-term Butskellism and stop-go policiesInflation -a major priority was to maintain inflation at a healthy low level. If prices began to rise, steps were taken to 'stop' the economy (raising tax or limiting pay increases) These policies worked in the short term but unable to prevent more popular 'go' policies just before elections, putting political gain ahead of economic stability. Unemployment -pledged to maintain full employment. If the economy began to dip then expansionary measures were taken (cutting taxes and interest rates) The conservatives were accused of using these more popular go policies just before elections, putting political gain ahead of economic stability. Slow Growth-the British economy grew at a slower rate than its competitors (2.3% per year compared to 5.6% in Italy and 5.1% in Germany)A key reason for this was a lack of investment in research and development in areas other than defence. Criticised for responding to short term problems rather than managing the British economy. The stop go approach papered over problems rather than solving themBy the mid 1960s the spectre of stagflation hung over Britain PARA 3 Labour. Short-term Wilson and Callaghan failed to improve on the Conservatives track record. Attempts were made to improve planning and increase investment in the white heat of new technology, but these failed to make a substantial impact due to continuing inflation, unemployment and slow growth. The Department of Economic Affairs was launched in 1964 under the leadership of the abrasive George Brown -devised a National Plan to stimulate growth, but this never got off the ground due to a lack of departmental resources, defined authority or decent working relations with the treasury yet in November 1967, having attempted to borrow his way out of economic trouble, he was forced to cut to the value of the pound from $2.80 to $2.40. Although Wilson went on television to explain that the 'pound in your pocket' was worth the same within the UK, he suffered a huge loss of credibility External factors. Unemployment and inflation were boosted in the UK due to the Yom Kippur War 1973By 1974, oil prices had risen 400% this contributed to more general inflation (as high as 25% in 1976) due to the increased cost of energy and fuel for transport. The increased cost of imports forced the Labour government to try and cap prices and wages, and to cut spending -this was not popular with voters and especially not with trade union backers Unemployment doubled between 1974 and 1976 to just below 1.5 million. These economic issues, together with mounting trade union anger, led to the winter of discontent which blew consensus politics apart -led to Thatcher and the New Right leaning of British politics and the 1979 election How far do you agree that Britain experienced economic progress in the years 1918-39? economic progress-unemployment, value of the £, inflation, new industries PARA 1- government policy. POINT Britain did experience economic progress - by the late 1930s, Government action had aided substantial economic recovery in the South of England and the midlands; in these areas there was a growing middle class, who now had greater fiscal security in the form of increasing home ownership, and were able to enhance their standard of living through the growth of new technologies. EVIDENCE Removal of gold standard and devaluation of the £ from $4.80 to $3.40-immediate impact and led to greater economic success. Made British goods cheaper abroad and made British exports more attractive. By 1939, industrial production had risen by 46 percent and exports had increased by 28 percent. -Cuts to interest rates and the 'cheap money' policy. The National Gov cuts interest rates - borrowing is cheaper and encourages spending and investment. Industry expands and modernises = increasing employment. -Consumer boom. unemployment falls from 17 percent to 18 percent by 1939. ANALYSIS Had an immediate impact and led to greater economic success. Made British goods cheaper abroad and made British exports more attractive. This was able to effectively break the cycle of economic stagnation which had characterised the recession and subsequent depression. For the first time since the pre war years, Britain experienced sustained and stable economic growth, and the mass unemployment which had characterised the early 1930s slowly subsided, ensuring Britain was a nation economically prepared for war by 1939. EVIDENCE Led to a consumer boom and The expansion of new (particularly white collar) industries. Due to investment, Light industries such as consumer goods and electrical boom in the southeast - a consumer boom ensues in these areas and an increasingly prosperous middle class can now afford previously luxury technologies. Real wages increase by 19 percent on average - increases buying power and enhanced by credit boom. Electrical appliance industry grew by over 100 percent and the service and leisure industry by 40 percent. ANALYSIS It is therefore possible to argue that Britain experienced economic progress as, in these years, the British economy began to move slowly away from the dependence on archaic heavy industry which had characterised the 19th and early 20th centuries. The creation of new industries offered new, well paid employment opportunities, and fueled a consumer boom in the affluent south which ultimately enhanced the quality of life for many among the middle class EVIDENCE This also increasing home ownership. Total value of mortgages taken out had risen to £636 million by 1937. Housing boom triggers huge growth in house production. ,000 new houses built. Construction industry provided ⅓ of all new jobs created in the 1930s= growing middle class and the earliest beginnings of what would later be called a 'property owning democracy' ANALYSIS Government liberalisation of credit rules led to economic progress for many among the middle class as they were able for the first time increased economic security through home ownership. The subsequent increase in demand for new homes also gave a financial incentive for both the private and public sector to meet the challenges of an acute housing crisis, although this failed to keep pace with rapid population growth. PARA 2- POINT Britain did not experience holistic economic progress as the working class was adversely affected by a rapid collapse of traditional heavy industry; for the majority of the populace, the 1930s were a time of wage stagnation and unemployment, and British industry's continued failure to modernise left it unable to compete with foreign competition. EVIDENCE- British industry handicapped by long term inability to adapt to new technologies or re-invest its profits in order to modernise. Increasingly failed to attract investment - by 1910 British industrial exports had fallen to just 10 percent of world trade and continued to decline thereafter. - industries also could not keep up with the level of demand for goods as they returned their function to civilian usage after war. ANALYSIS- Therefore, it is more accurate to argue that Britain did not experience economic progress. Failure to modernise British industry left it unable to cope with increased demand following the war. The failure of British industry to reward immediate post war investment left it underfunded in the long term, and therefore trapped in a cycle of anachronism, unable to modernise. EVIDENCE- .Growth in foreign competition and decline in attractiveness of British goods abroad - had relied on imperial trade connections. WW1- U boats had sunk 40 percent of British merchant shipping and cut off trade routes - by 1918 Britain's exports had fallen by 12 percent. Japan had taken over textile markets in Asia (increasing unemployment in the north west) and Britain also began to import cheaper and higher quality American steel ANALYSIS- Therefore, Britain's economic prosperity, which had relied on empirical trade routes and protectionism, now suffered as world markets were overtaken by cheaper and higher quality products from technologically innovative nations. This led to a rapid contraction of British industry in the 1920s, and exacerbated the effects of worldwide economic downturn on Britain at the outset of the great depression. PARA 3- geddes act. Britain did not experience economic progress as successive government repeatedly failed to break the cycle of economic decline which the UK entered into after the first world war; in many cases, government action only worsened Britain's economic woes, and ensured that high levels of unemployment and falling standards of living became commonplace among the working class in the 1920s and 30s. EVIDENCE-In spite of the promise to build 'homes fit for heroes' DLG pursued a policy of retrenchment recommended by the Commission on National Expenditure - social spending fell from £206 million to £182 million. The government raises taxes every year 18 - 22 and raises interest rates to 7 percent to attract foreign investors - as a result demand falls as individuals save. Cost of living rises 25 percent 1918-20 and by 1921, unemployment at 12 percent ANALYSIS-Therefore, it is possible to argue that Britain did not experience economic progress in this era as the implementation of Geddes Axe led to decreasing access to healthcare, education and unemployment benefits which ultimately impeded working class social mobility. Furthermore, a decline in spending and foreign investment led to the stagnation of holistic economic growth, reinforcing the cycle of downturn EVIDENCE-Baldwin, protectionism, and the gold standard. April 1925 - Gold standard is re-introduced, returning the pound to its pre war value of $4.86 (only valued at $3.81 in 1919)Made British Goods more expensive abroad - British exports collapse and worsened unemployment and falling wages. Introduced tariffs - boost in demand for British goods not a long term solution. Artificial boost means British industry does not take steps to modernise. Other nations impose tariff walls in response = worsens falling exports ANALYSIS-Failed to instigate economic recovery and instead exacerbated and accelerated rising unemployment and falling industrial productivity, primarily through decimating Britain's remaining exports through increasing the price of goods and cutting off valuable overseas markets. British industry remained complacent and ultimately, with a lack of incentive to modernise, fell further behind other nations in technological advancement E.Macdonald's retrenchment in reaction to the 'economic blizzard' How accurate is it to say that, in the years 1918-45, the economic challenges Britain faced were the main factor in shaping political landscape? ARGUMENT ww2 created collectivism+landslide labour 1945, beveridge report+post war consensus, both breadth and depth. economy was a short term problem began to improve, shift in electorate was widespread, wouldn't have had an influence without the shift in the labour party from socialist revolution to total war=total solutions. PARA 1 economy. national government+wall street crash 1929-need to unite, profound threat to britain, difficult decisions needed to be made quickly, cons + labour share the same goal. Lloyd george 1918-22? economic threat=unity. PARA 2 RPA 1918 expansion of the electorate. 80% of w/c voting. labour=representation for the working class/2nd party. aim=more of a socialist revolution. PARA 3 ww2 national government 1935 onwards, no economic threat-foreign policy threat. collectivism total war=total solutions. beveridge report, labour landslide criteria-how will you know. longevity labour becoming 2nd party. coalition , consensus politics, change in attitudes To what extent were Labour and Conservative governments successful in tackling the economic problems faced by Britain in the years 1945-79 PARA 1 Legacy of ww2. The National government of 1939 had no reservations about interfering in people's lives as far as was necessary to wage total war-rationing and conscription were introduced immediately. Registration for employment was made compulsory in 1941; the government issued around 8.5 million Essential Work Orders, which forced people to do particular jobs. By 1945 3.2 million people had worked in munitions, 4 million in other war work and 5.5 million had been conscripted. In 1944 the government declared its long term responsibility for the maintenance of high employment. Keynesianism-rather than aim to balance the budgets in hard times, the government should borrow and spend more money to stimulate a recovery PARA 2 Conservatives. Short term Butskellism and stop-go policies. a major priority was to maintain inflation at a healthy low level. If prices began to rise, steps were taken to 'stop' the economy (raising tax or limiting pay increases) These policies worked in the short term but unable to prevent more popular 'go' policies just before elections, putting political gain ahead of economic stability. Also pledged to maintain full employment. If the economy began to dip then expansionary measures were taken (cutting taxes and interest rates). Slow Growth -- the British economy grew at a slower rate than its competitors (2.3% per year compared to 5.6% in Italy and 5.1% in Germany)A key reason for this was a lack of investment in research and development in areas other than defence. Criticised for responding to short term problems rather than managing the British economy. The stop go approach papered over problems rather than solving them. By the mid 1960s the spectre of stagflation hung over Britain PARA 3 Labour. Also short term-Wilson and Callaghan failed to improve on the Conservatives track record. Attempts were made to improve planning and increase investment in the white heat of new technology, but these failed to make a substantial impact due to continuing inflation, unemployment and slow growth. The Department of Economic Affairs was launched in 1964 under the leadership of the abrasive George Brown who devised a National Plan to stimulate growth, but this never got off the ground due to a lack of departmental resources, defined authority or decent working relations with the treasury. Yet in November 1967, having attempted to borrow his way out of economic trouble, he was forced to cut to the value of the pound from $2.80 to $2.40. Although Wilson went on television to explain that the 'pound in your pocket' was worth the same within the UK, he suffered a huge loss of credibility. The increased cost of imports forced the Labour government to try and cap prices and wages, and to cut spending -- this was not popular with voters and especially not with trade union backers How accurate is it to say that the years 1918-79 were a period of significantly widening educational opportunities? para 1 fisher act 1918 aimed to help with the construction of a 'home fit for heroes'. Fisher wanted to widen access to education in 3 ways: increasing the school leaving age to 14, providing nursery schools for toddlers and 'continuation schools' for new workers aged over 14 to continue their studies one day a week and scrapping all fees for elementary education. although basic elementary education was made free in 1891, there were loopholes that meant that parents had to pay for some elements of their childs education. the act also made provisions for punishing those who employed school-age children, and provided free, compulsory health checks for secondary students. nurseries and 'continuation schools were not really built due to a lack of funding as the geddes axe 1922 cut governments spending. para 2 robbins para 3 butler act How accurate is it to say that the education act of 1944 transformed the provision of education in the years 1945-79? ARGUMENT-slightly transformed education but was not as significant as the robbins committee report PARA 1 education act 1944 slightly transformed the provision of education. this act hoped that a 'parity of esteem would exist between pupils going to technical, modern and grammar schools. also aimed to tackle the 'giant' of ignorance by building on the Hadow report. this act increased the school leaving age to 15 in 1947 and secondary education was made free and universally available. led to more choice and less pressure for students. the 11+ became seen as a pass/fail -led to inequalities. working class mothers, due to uneven funding could not afford to send kids to grammar schools. boys + girls had different expectations at secondary modern and grammar. still gender differences+less opportunities for girls. these gender differences show that the act was limited and only focused on gender binaries PARA 2 robbins committee report largely transformed education provision. despite oxford and cambridge remaining most prevalent, the report led to more opportunities for students to attend university. between 1962-70, the number of universities increased from 22 to 46. In addition, government increased state funding enabling the growth of university places+ suggests they were invested in providing education. the report led to a boom in university education as between 1970-83 full time students increased from to . led to a highly educated workforce, people could demand high salaries for high skilled jobs. the report showed that university is not preserved for the rich, allowing social mobility to increase. unlike the crosland circular and education act, led to increased opportunities for students. PARA 3 the crosland circular 1965 slightly transformed the education provision, anthony crosland issued a document named circular 10/65, calling for universal comprehensive education and aiming to 'eliminate separatism' in secondary school. this replaced the tripartite system- accepting of all abilities and led to no division between intelligence or position of class. There were arguments for and against this reform and many LEA's looked as if they might ignore it, however in 1966 the government issued another document that said funding for new schools or refurbishment would only go to those who adopted comprehensive reform, meaning that the financial pressure led to many LEAs adopting the system. whilst the conservative government removed the crosland circular , labours 1976 education act reintroduced comprehensive reorganisation. 33% of people were educated at comprehensive schools in 1970 compared to 90% in 1979. However, some LEAs found it difficult to manage their headteachers which led to some disparity in the way that children were being taught, meaning complete equality was not accomplished How accurate is it to say that new Commonwealth immigration was the most significant development in immigration and race relations in the years 1918-79? PARA 1-new Commonwealth immigration was the most significant development in immigration and race relations. post-war economic recovery had a large impact. britains hope for full employment and the demand for cheap labour led to britain recruiting workers in europe. 100,000 poles had been based in britain in the war and felt unable to return to poland under the new communist government. this was however enough to meet the demands so the NHS+london transform advertised vacant positions through the new commonwealth. 140 men men were recruited in barbados alone in 1956. these immigrants were allowed to settle in the uk due to the 1948 british nationality act which made all people living in the commonwealth british citizens. this led chains of migration being set up. 492 west indian passengers who dissemarked in london from the ss empire windrush 1948. largescale immigrants in 1955-62 longterm over 70,000 per year in the 60s and 70s PARA 2- government legislation pre-war 1919 aliens act meant that immigrants had to gain a work permibefore arrival, register with the police and maintain lawful behaviour to avoid deportation. not repealed fully until 1971- shows lack of government intervention which worsened race relation. whilst conservative ministers such as alan lennox-boyd wanted to uphold the international prestige of british liberalism yet deemed the number of immigrants too small to necessitate immediate action. inter-departmental committee aimes to 'disperse' black immigrants around the country+offer training courses to facilitate their employment. this had little impact as local councils failed to help intergration. this increased tension causing gangs such as the 'teddy boys' to emerge creating violence between white and black men. this led to the 1958 notting hill riots who aimed to intimidate black men as they felt their jobs were being stolen. 1000 white and black men fought-100 white men arrested- widespread all over the news PARA 3 opposition- Harold Wilson and the labor government-1968 race relations act made public discrimination illegal and attempted to change public attitudes. this faced opposition from the national front party, which disagreed with this law and gained 200,000 members. we can also see opposition through Enoch Powell who delivered his 'river of blood' speech, demonstrating extreme racist attitudes and general hatred towards immigrants. this was widely supported as a petition to stop Powell being sacked gained over 30,000 signatures+opinion polls suggested that 75%of the general public agreed with his speech. Here we can see that opposition to immigration legislation therefore limited its impact, was widespread but not long-term- a multicultural society became the norm. How accurate is to say that living standards saw sustained improvement in the years 1918-79? PARA 1- post ww1 a short post-war boom collapsed into a severe recession in 1921 as wages fell for the poorest in society until 1934 and many families lived off of 5 pounds a week. yet. for most britons, livind standards imroved between the wars, largely because prices, especially for food, fell faster than wages:the real cost of living fell by more than a third between 1920 and 1938. Seabohm rowntree estimated that the quality of life in york improved by 30% between 1899 and 1936. an increase in contraception meant that women on average had less children and therefore family incomes were shared between fewer people and therefore went further. In addition, the war led to a decline in the consumption of alcohol due to the 1914 defence of the realm act. continued peacetime restrictions on pub opening hours together with the rising popularity of other forms of entertainment caused the amount spent on alcohol to fall. Diet also improved due to rationing in the last years of the war, yet there was still a large variation in nutritional standards between different classes. Healthcare also improved between the wars as by 1922, infant mortality had halved from the 1900s due to improved medicine and sanitation. However, large variation remained between different regions as different quality of diets led to varying infant mortality rates, which varied from 5.17 deaths per 1000 live births in wales compared to 0.86 in the wealthy district of kensington in london. PARA 2 the effects of 'total war'. the second world war for britain was 'total' in the way that no could escape its demands or impact. everyone was affected to different degrees either through rationing, fear of losing loved ones, damage to homes or loss of life. two out of every seven houses was destroyed 15.9 million men registered for service and 7.1 million females were involved in the war effort. although potential german invasion was held off, britain struggled to import enough food due to the loss of shipping to the german submarines in the battle of the atlantic. however, britain did endure an improved living standard as government price controls meant that a wide range of goods became more affordable for the poorest of families, especially as average wages almost doubled during the war. food became more accessible as ration coupons could be exchanged for food in shops. this can not be seen as a sustained improvement as during and after the second world war, britain experienced austerity as every briton was forced to adopt an austere lifestyle due to the financial sacrifices needed to wage total war. 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