ADVANCED PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 150
QUESTIONS AND ELABORATED
ANSWERS 2025\2026
Explain how cells are connected to form tissues and organs? -
ANSWER- Cellular receptors such as protein molecules on the
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, or nucleus. Proteins that bind with
ligands must fit together. The plasma membrane receptors:
Determine with which ligands a cell will bind. Determine how the
cell will respond to the binding. Ligand-receptor complex initiates
interactions causing adenylyl cyclase to transform adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) to messenger molecules that stimulate specific
response in the cell. This will allow cells to form tissues and organs.
Describe the different types of tissues and their functions. Epithelial,
Connective, Muscle, Neural. - ANSWER- Epithelial- covers most of
the internal and external body surfaces, simple, stratified,
squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudo stratified. The structures are
Cilia and microvilli. Functions- protection, absorption, secretion,
and excretion.
Connective- serve as the ground substance, the fibers are
collagenous (white), elastic (yellow), and reticular. There are loose
,and dense connective tissue examples are cartilage, bone, vascular,
adipose, and organs. Functions- They are the framework for
forming organs, binding, supporting, and storing excess nutrients.
Muscle Tissue- are composed of myocytes, examples are smooth,
skeletal, cardiac. Functions- contractile tissue, enabling both
voluntary and involuntary movement.
Neural Tissue- Structure: Neurons, synapses, cell body, axons, and
dendrites. Functions: Receive and transmit electrical impulses very
rapidly across junctions called synapses such as Neurotransmitters.
Mitochondria within the cells are responsible for: - ANSWER- a.
Cellular respiration and energy production via metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids.
The process of catabolism involves three phases in which order? -
ANSWER- b. Digestion, glycolysis, and Krebs cycle.
A patient has an annual Pap smear and gynecologic examination. Three
years ago, immediately before her third pregnancy, the pathologic report
of her Pap smear indicated she had hormonal hyperplasia. Her current
Pap smear indicates she has atypical hyperplasia or dysplasia. What is
the difference between these? - ANSWER- Atypical hyperplasia- is a
term used when there is an abnormal pattern of growth of cells
within the ducts and/ or lobules that are not cancerous.
Hyperplasia means that there are more cells than usual and they
are no longer lined up in just the 2 layers of cells. By looking under
the microscope some of the growth looks more abnormal.
,Dysplasia- is a term used in pathology to refer to an abnormality in
maturation of cells within a tissue. This generally consists of an
expansion of immature cells, with a corresponding decrease in the
number and location of mature cells.
Dysplasia is often indicative of an early neoplastic process. Example
is Epithelial dysplasia of the cervix (from an abnormal pap smear)
consists of an increased population of immature (basal-like) cells
which are restricted to the mucosal surface, and have not invaded
through the basement membrane to the deeper soft tissues.
A patient has been smoking one pack of cigarettes per day for 20 years.
Describe the possible cellular changes that have occurred in his
bronchial linings that can make him more prone to upper respiratory
infections - ANSWER- Smoking damage is slow and progressive and
deadly. Smoking affects the normal process of how our respiratory
system removes trapped dirt and disease causing organisms, which
cilia sweep toward the mouth, where it can be eliminated. The first
inhalation starts the process of the cilia slowly losing their function
and becoming paralyzed and then disappears all together. The
smoker's cough is now the end result. The cilium no longer removes
the mucus effectively and the person must cough it up. The
respiratory tract is now vulnerable for lung congestion and a place
for pathogenic organisms to start developing. The cough leads to
chronic bronchitis caused by the destroyed cilia. The bronchioles
lose elasticity and are no longer able to absorb the pressure within
the alveoli enough to rupture the delicate alveolar walls; this is the
classic sign for emphysema. Progressing emphysema may be cellular
changes leading to lung cancer. First the outer border of the
bronchial lining begins to divide more rapidly than usual.
Eventually, these displace the ciliated cells. The nuclei begin to look
like cancer cells, large and distorted with abnormal numbers and
, chromosomes. The damage at this point can be repaired is smoking
ceases. However, if it doesn't these cells may eventually break
through the basement membrane and begin dividing within the lung
tissue, forming a tumor with the potential of spreading throughout
lung tissue
A patient is diagnosed with a cerebral embolus (CVA). Explain how
hypoxia causes the intracellular ion balance to change. - ANSWER- The
regulation of both intracellular pH (pHi) and extracellular pH (pHo) of
brain cells is critically important because many cellular processes are
sensitive to changes in pHi and/or pHo. These pH-sensitive processes
include enzymes and transporters, as well as voltage- and ligand-gated
channels that can influence neuronal activity. The pH sensitivity of
glutamate-stimulated and voltage-gated Ca2+ channels is particularly
relevant to ion disturbances associated with hypoxia and ischemia, when
increases in intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) can be neurotoxic.
Ischemia/hypoxia generally leads to decreases in both pHi and pHo in
brain cells, although the pattern and magnitude of the pH changes can
vary among preparations If the primary insult were a fall in pHi( i.e., at
constant pHo), then brain cells would attempt to regulate their pHi by
extruding acid, that is, transporting acid into or taking up HCO3 from
the extracellular space. The resulting secondary decrease in pHo could
contribute to tissue damage
A 95-year-old patient expresses frustration due to the constant stiffness
she suffers. What are some examples of a decrease in her tissue and
systemic function as a result of the aging process? - ANSWER- Aging is
the result of accumulated DNA damage, decreased proliferative capacity
of stem cells, and accumulated metabolic damage (Kumar, Abbas &
Aster, 2010). Some of the decreased tissue and systemic function is:
Cardiovascular- decreased vessel elasticity caused by calcification of
FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE 150
QUESTIONS AND ELABORATED
ANSWERS 2025\2026
Explain how cells are connected to form tissues and organs? -
ANSWER- Cellular receptors such as protein molecules on the
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, or nucleus. Proteins that bind with
ligands must fit together. The plasma membrane receptors:
Determine with which ligands a cell will bind. Determine how the
cell will respond to the binding. Ligand-receptor complex initiates
interactions causing adenylyl cyclase to transform adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) to messenger molecules that stimulate specific
response in the cell. This will allow cells to form tissues and organs.
Describe the different types of tissues and their functions. Epithelial,
Connective, Muscle, Neural. - ANSWER- Epithelial- covers most of
the internal and external body surfaces, simple, stratified,
squamous, cuboidal, columnar, pseudo stratified. The structures are
Cilia and microvilli. Functions- protection, absorption, secretion,
and excretion.
Connective- serve as the ground substance, the fibers are
collagenous (white), elastic (yellow), and reticular. There are loose
,and dense connective tissue examples are cartilage, bone, vascular,
adipose, and organs. Functions- They are the framework for
forming organs, binding, supporting, and storing excess nutrients.
Muscle Tissue- are composed of myocytes, examples are smooth,
skeletal, cardiac. Functions- contractile tissue, enabling both
voluntary and involuntary movement.
Neural Tissue- Structure: Neurons, synapses, cell body, axons, and
dendrites. Functions: Receive and transmit electrical impulses very
rapidly across junctions called synapses such as Neurotransmitters.
Mitochondria within the cells are responsible for: - ANSWER- a.
Cellular respiration and energy production via metabolism of
carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids.
The process of catabolism involves three phases in which order? -
ANSWER- b. Digestion, glycolysis, and Krebs cycle.
A patient has an annual Pap smear and gynecologic examination. Three
years ago, immediately before her third pregnancy, the pathologic report
of her Pap smear indicated she had hormonal hyperplasia. Her current
Pap smear indicates she has atypical hyperplasia or dysplasia. What is
the difference between these? - ANSWER- Atypical hyperplasia- is a
term used when there is an abnormal pattern of growth of cells
within the ducts and/ or lobules that are not cancerous.
Hyperplasia means that there are more cells than usual and they
are no longer lined up in just the 2 layers of cells. By looking under
the microscope some of the growth looks more abnormal.
,Dysplasia- is a term used in pathology to refer to an abnormality in
maturation of cells within a tissue. This generally consists of an
expansion of immature cells, with a corresponding decrease in the
number and location of mature cells.
Dysplasia is often indicative of an early neoplastic process. Example
is Epithelial dysplasia of the cervix (from an abnormal pap smear)
consists of an increased population of immature (basal-like) cells
which are restricted to the mucosal surface, and have not invaded
through the basement membrane to the deeper soft tissues.
A patient has been smoking one pack of cigarettes per day for 20 years.
Describe the possible cellular changes that have occurred in his
bronchial linings that can make him more prone to upper respiratory
infections - ANSWER- Smoking damage is slow and progressive and
deadly. Smoking affects the normal process of how our respiratory
system removes trapped dirt and disease causing organisms, which
cilia sweep toward the mouth, where it can be eliminated. The first
inhalation starts the process of the cilia slowly losing their function
and becoming paralyzed and then disappears all together. The
smoker's cough is now the end result. The cilium no longer removes
the mucus effectively and the person must cough it up. The
respiratory tract is now vulnerable for lung congestion and a place
for pathogenic organisms to start developing. The cough leads to
chronic bronchitis caused by the destroyed cilia. The bronchioles
lose elasticity and are no longer able to absorb the pressure within
the alveoli enough to rupture the delicate alveolar walls; this is the
classic sign for emphysema. Progressing emphysema may be cellular
changes leading to lung cancer. First the outer border of the
bronchial lining begins to divide more rapidly than usual.
Eventually, these displace the ciliated cells. The nuclei begin to look
like cancer cells, large and distorted with abnormal numbers and
, chromosomes. The damage at this point can be repaired is smoking
ceases. However, if it doesn't these cells may eventually break
through the basement membrane and begin dividing within the lung
tissue, forming a tumor with the potential of spreading throughout
lung tissue
A patient is diagnosed with a cerebral embolus (CVA). Explain how
hypoxia causes the intracellular ion balance to change. - ANSWER- The
regulation of both intracellular pH (pHi) and extracellular pH (pHo) of
brain cells is critically important because many cellular processes are
sensitive to changes in pHi and/or pHo. These pH-sensitive processes
include enzymes and transporters, as well as voltage- and ligand-gated
channels that can influence neuronal activity. The pH sensitivity of
glutamate-stimulated and voltage-gated Ca2+ channels is particularly
relevant to ion disturbances associated with hypoxia and ischemia, when
increases in intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) can be neurotoxic.
Ischemia/hypoxia generally leads to decreases in both pHi and pHo in
brain cells, although the pattern and magnitude of the pH changes can
vary among preparations If the primary insult were a fall in pHi( i.e., at
constant pHo), then brain cells would attempt to regulate their pHi by
extruding acid, that is, transporting acid into or taking up HCO3 from
the extracellular space. The resulting secondary decrease in pHo could
contribute to tissue damage
A 95-year-old patient expresses frustration due to the constant stiffness
she suffers. What are some examples of a decrease in her tissue and
systemic function as a result of the aging process? - ANSWER- Aging is
the result of accumulated DNA damage, decreased proliferative capacity
of stem cells, and accumulated metabolic damage (Kumar, Abbas &
Aster, 2010). Some of the decreased tissue and systemic function is:
Cardiovascular- decreased vessel elasticity caused by calcification of
