Methodologie van de communicatiewetenschap
Table of Contents
Inleiding ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Wetenschappelijke onderzoek ............................................................................................................... 7
Te vermijden risico’s ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Lesdoelen ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Communicatie research......................................................................................................................... 8
De gangbare fouten in surveyonderzoek ....................................................................................................................... 8
Academisch vs toegepast onderzoek ...................................................................................................... 9
Modellen ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Academic research model........................................................................................................................................... 9
Model for applied/corporate research .......................................................................................................................... 9
Impact: how academics & their work make a difference.............................................................................................. 10
De wetenschappelijke methode ........................................................................................................... 11
Wat is onderzoek?..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Types onderzoek ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Sociaalwetenschappelijk onderzoek .......................................................................................................................... 13
Doelstellingen van onderzoek .............................................................................................................. 14
Soorten onderzoek .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Eenheden van observatie .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Research design .................................................................................................................................. 16
Stappen in research design ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Ethische issues......................................................................................................................................................... 16
Conceptualisatie ...................................................................................................................................................... 17
Operationalisatie ...................................................................................................................................................... 18
Validiteit en betrouwbaarheid .................................................................................................................................... 18
Indexen, schalen en typologieën ................................................................................................................................ 19
Kwantitatief vs kwalitatief .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Meten in sociaalwetenschappelijk onderzoek ............................................................................................................ 20
Epistemology & ontology in social science research .................................................................... 21
Doelstellingen ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Belangrijke begrippen................................................................................................................................................ 21
Epistemology, ontology & research practice ......................................................................................... 22
Positivism ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Interpretivism ........................................................................................................................................................... 23
Verschillen ............................................................................................................................................................... 23
1
, The methodological continuum ................................................................................................................................. 24
Research ethics ......................................................................................................................... 25
Voorbeeld uit communicatiewetenschappelijk onderzoek .................................................................... 25
Professional pressures ........................................................................................................................ 26
Gevolg ...................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Setting up your research project ................................................................................................. 26
Literature review .................................................................................................................................. 26
Aanpak van literatuurstudie ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Waar vind je informatie? ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Wat is een literature review? ...................................................................................................................................... 27
Reading .................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Research questions .................................................................................................................................................. 28
Veelgebruikte manieren om een literatuurstudie te organiseren .................................................................................. 28
Veelvoorkomende fouten .......................................................................................................................................... 29
Primary vs secondary sources ................................................................................................................................... 29
Structuur van reviewartikels ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Organisatie van de literatuur ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Active or passive voice .............................................................................................................................................. 31
Een goede literatuurstudie ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Research question vs hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 32
What is research? ..................................................................................................................................................... 32
Formulate a question ................................................................................................................................................ 32
Research designs ................................................................................................................................ 34
Research design continuum ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Sampling ................................................................................................................................... 36
Basic concepts in samples & sampling ................................................................................................. 36
Population ................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Sample ..................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Reasons for taking a sample ................................................................................................................. 37
Van populatie tot steekproef ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Basic sampling classifications ............................................................................................................. 38
Probability sampling methods ................................................................................................................................... 38
Non-probability sampling methods ............................................................................................................................ 39
Sampling distribution........................................................................................................................... 39
Central limit theorem ................................................................................................................................................ 40
Sample size calculation ............................................................................................................................................ 41
Testing....................................................................................................................................... 42
2
, Confidence intervals ............................................................................................................................ 42
De logica achter schatten (estimation) ....................................................................................................................... 42
Bias & efficiency ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
Confidence levels en α .............................................................................................................................................. 43
Confidence intervals for means ................................................................................................................................. 43
Confidence intervals for proportions .......................................................................................................................... 44
One sample testing .............................................................................................................................. 45
Outline ..................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Significant differences .............................................................................................................................................. 45
The null and alternative hypotheses ........................................................................................................................... 46
Two-tailed hypothesis test......................................................................................................................................... 46
5-step model voor hypothesis testing......................................................................................................................... 46
Student’s t-distribution voor kleine samples .............................................................................................................. 48
Testing sample proportions ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Belangrijke keuzes in hypothesis testing .................................................................................................................... 50
Type 1 and type 2 errors............................................................................................................................................. 51
Two sample testing .............................................................................................................................. 52
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................. 52
Null hypothesis ......................................................................................................................................................... 52
Alternate hypothesis ................................................................................................................................................. 52
Formule bij grote steekproeven.................................................................................................................................. 52
Stappenplan bij two-sample hypothesis testing.......................................................................................................... 53
Formule bij kleine steekproeven ................................................................................................................................ 54
Hypothesetoetsing met proporties (grote steekproeven) ............................................................................................. 55
Factoren die beslissing beïnvloeden .......................................................................................................................... 55
SPSS in action ............................................................................................................................ 56
Normality tests .................................................................................................................................... 56
Verbanden tussen 2 variabelen ............................................................................................................ 57
Nominal & ordinal ..................................................................................................................................................... 57
Surveys ..................................................................................................................................... 61
Scale construction............................................................................................................................... 61
Waarom werken met schalen? .................................................................................................................................. 61
Twee types van schalen ....................................................................................................................... 61
Likert scales ............................................................................................................................................................. 61
Guttman scales ........................................................................................................................................................ 62
Vergelijking Likert vs Guttman.................................................................................................................................... 64
Voordelen van schaalconstructie .............................................................................................................................. 65
Onafhankelijke & afhankelijke variabelen ................................................................................................................... 65
3
, Research design & methodology........................................................................................................... 65
Cross-sectional design ............................................................................................................................................. 65
Longitudinal designs ................................................................................................................................................. 66
Time series design .................................................................................................................................................... 66
Panel designs ........................................................................................................................................................... 67
Introduction to survey research (cross-sectional) ................................................................................. 67
Wanneer zijn surveys geschikt? ................................................................................................................................. 67
Algemene kenmerken van survey research ................................................................................................................. 67
Sterktes en zwaktes survey research.......................................................................................................................... 67
Response rate .......................................................................................................................................................... 68
Survey modes ...................................................................................................................................... 69
Mail surveys & self-administered questionnaires ........................................................................................................ 69
Face-to-face interview surveys .................................................................................................................................. 69
Telephone surveys .................................................................................................................................................... 69
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) ...................................................................................................... 70
Internet (web) surveys ............................................................................................................................................... 70
Comparison of survey methods ................................................................................................................................. 71
Secondary analysis of survey data ............................................................................................................................. 71
Questionnaire construction ................................................................................................................. 71
Structuur van een goede vragenlijst ........................................................................................................................... 72
Typen vragen ............................................................................................................................................................ 72
Closed or open-ended question responses ................................................................................................................ 73
Filter- en vervolgvragen ............................................................................................................................................. 74
Principes van vraagstelling ........................................................................................................................................ 74
Problemen................................................................................................................................................................ 74
Surveyproces ...................................................................................................................................... 75
Experiments .............................................................................................................................. 76
Experiments in (social) science ............................................................................................................ 76
The research process ........................................................................................................................... 76
Pre-empirical/conceptual phase ............................................................................................................................... 76
Designing & planning................................................................................................................................................. 77
What is an experiment? ........................................................................................................................ 77
Gecontroleerde setting (controlled setting) ................................................................................................................ 77
Causal relationship ................................................................................................................................................... 78
Types of experiments ........................................................................................................................... 79
‘True experimental’ designs ....................................................................................................................................... 79
Quasi-experimentele en pre-experimentele ontwerpen .............................................................................................. 81
Within-subjects & between subjects .......................................................................................................................... 81
4
, Factorial designs ...................................................................................................................................................... 82
Prepararing the experiment .................................................................................................................. 82
Participanten & steekproefgrootte ............................................................................................................................. 83
Pretest ..................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Examples ............................................................................................................................................ 84
Quasi experimental design ........................................................................................................................................ 84
Sources of error ................................................................................................................................... 85
Interviewing ............................................................................................................................... 85
The art of listening ............................................................................................................................... 85
Being a good listener ................................................................................................................................................. 85
Being a better listener ............................................................................................................................................... 86
Paralanguage............................................................................................................................................................ 86
Interviews ........................................................................................................................................... 86
Soorten interviews .................................................................................................................................................... 86
Welke vorm kiezen? .................................................................................................................................................. 87
7 stages of an interview (Kvale, 1996) .................................................................................................... 87
The interview guide .............................................................................................................................. 87
Preparing your interview guide ................................................................................................................................... 87
Voorbereiding van het interview ................................................................................................................................. 87
Soorten vragen (Kvale) ......................................................................................................................... 88
Directe/structurerende (guiding) ................................................................................................................................ 88
Doorvragen (probing) ................................................................................................................................................ 88
Fasen in vraagstelling (Charmaz, 2002) ...................................................................................................................... 88
Kwaliteitscriteria (Kvale, 1996) ............................................................................................................. 88
Kristi’s cautions (nuttige waarschuwingen) ................................................................................................................ 88
Preparing for the interview ................................................................................................................... 88
Opnemen & noteren .................................................................................................................................................. 88
Transcriptie .............................................................................................................................................................. 89
Focus groups ............................................................................................................................. 89
Wat zijn focusgroepen? ........................................................................................................................ 89
Focusgroepen ...................................................................................................................................... 89
Focus groups vs. Observation.................................................................................................................................... 89
Focus groups vs individual interviews ........................................................................................................................ 89
Soorten focusgroepen.......................................................................................................................... 89
Toepassingen ...................................................................................................................................... 90
Voor- en nadelen.................................................................................................................................. 90
Voordelen................................................................................................................................................................. 90
5
, Nadelen ................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Groupthink .......................................................................................................................................... 90
Kenmerken ............................................................................................................................................................... 90
Uitvoering van focusgroepen ................................................................................................................ 90
Selecteren van deelnemers ....................................................................................................................................... 90
Start van de focusgroep............................................................................................................................................. 91
Vragen stellen ........................................................................................................................................................... 91
Moderator ................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Opname & transcriptie .............................................................................................................................................. 92
Do’s & dont’s bij marketingfocusgroepen (Joanne L. Krotz) .................................................................... 93
Do’s ......................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Luisteren naar de ‘loudmouth’ ................................................................................................................................... 93
Ethische aandachtspunten ....................................................................................................................................... 93
Ethnography .............................................................................................................................. 93
Wat is ethnography? ............................................................................................................................ 93
Participant observation ........................................................................................................................ 93
Insider vs outsider..................................................................................................................................................... 94
Waarom etnografie? ............................................................................................................................ 94
Field notes (veldnotities) ........................................................................................................................................... 94
Key informants .................................................................................................................................... 94
Criteria voor selectie ................................................................................................................................................. 94
Rol als gatekeeper .................................................................................................................................................... 94
Belang bij participatief onderzoek .............................................................................................................................. 95
Ethnographic chats .............................................................................................................................. 95
Gebruik van microfoons & opname ....................................................................................................... 95
Ethnography als student ...................................................................................................................... 95
Mogelijke vormen ...................................................................................................................................................... 95
Voor studenten ......................................................................................................................................................... 95
6
Table of Contents
Inleiding ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Wetenschappelijke onderzoek ............................................................................................................... 7
Te vermijden risico’s ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Lesdoelen ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Communicatie research......................................................................................................................... 8
De gangbare fouten in surveyonderzoek ....................................................................................................................... 8
Academisch vs toegepast onderzoek ...................................................................................................... 9
Modellen ............................................................................................................................................... 9
Academic research model........................................................................................................................................... 9
Model for applied/corporate research .......................................................................................................................... 9
Impact: how academics & their work make a difference.............................................................................................. 10
De wetenschappelijke methode ........................................................................................................... 11
Wat is onderzoek?..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Types onderzoek ....................................................................................................................................................... 12
Sociaalwetenschappelijk onderzoek .......................................................................................................................... 13
Doelstellingen van onderzoek .............................................................................................................. 14
Soorten onderzoek .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Eenheden van observatie .......................................................................................................................................... 15
Research design .................................................................................................................................. 16
Stappen in research design ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Ethische issues......................................................................................................................................................... 16
Conceptualisatie ...................................................................................................................................................... 17
Operationalisatie ...................................................................................................................................................... 18
Validiteit en betrouwbaarheid .................................................................................................................................... 18
Indexen, schalen en typologieën ................................................................................................................................ 19
Kwantitatief vs kwalitatief .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Meten in sociaalwetenschappelijk onderzoek ............................................................................................................ 20
Epistemology & ontology in social science research .................................................................... 21
Doelstellingen ..................................................................................................................................... 21
Belangrijke begrippen................................................................................................................................................ 21
Epistemology, ontology & research practice ......................................................................................... 22
Positivism ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Interpretivism ........................................................................................................................................................... 23
Verschillen ............................................................................................................................................................... 23
1
, The methodological continuum ................................................................................................................................. 24
Research ethics ......................................................................................................................... 25
Voorbeeld uit communicatiewetenschappelijk onderzoek .................................................................... 25
Professional pressures ........................................................................................................................ 26
Gevolg ...................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Setting up your research project ................................................................................................. 26
Literature review .................................................................................................................................. 26
Aanpak van literatuurstudie ....................................................................................................................................... 26
Waar vind je informatie? ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Wat is een literature review? ...................................................................................................................................... 27
Reading .................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Research questions .................................................................................................................................................. 28
Veelgebruikte manieren om een literatuurstudie te organiseren .................................................................................. 28
Veelvoorkomende fouten .......................................................................................................................................... 29
Primary vs secondary sources ................................................................................................................................... 29
Structuur van reviewartikels ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Organisatie van de literatuur ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Active or passive voice .............................................................................................................................................. 31
Een goede literatuurstudie ........................................................................................................................................ 31
Research question vs hypothesis ......................................................................................................... 32
What is research? ..................................................................................................................................................... 32
Formulate a question ................................................................................................................................................ 32
Research designs ................................................................................................................................ 34
Research design continuum ...................................................................................................................................... 34
Sampling ................................................................................................................................... 36
Basic concepts in samples & sampling ................................................................................................. 36
Population ................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Sample ..................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Reasons for taking a sample ................................................................................................................. 37
Van populatie tot steekproef ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Basic sampling classifications ............................................................................................................. 38
Probability sampling methods ................................................................................................................................... 38
Non-probability sampling methods ............................................................................................................................ 39
Sampling distribution........................................................................................................................... 39
Central limit theorem ................................................................................................................................................ 40
Sample size calculation ............................................................................................................................................ 41
Testing....................................................................................................................................... 42
2
, Confidence intervals ............................................................................................................................ 42
De logica achter schatten (estimation) ....................................................................................................................... 42
Bias & efficiency ....................................................................................................................................................... 43
Confidence levels en α .............................................................................................................................................. 43
Confidence intervals for means ................................................................................................................................. 43
Confidence intervals for proportions .......................................................................................................................... 44
One sample testing .............................................................................................................................. 45
Outline ..................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Significant differences .............................................................................................................................................. 45
The null and alternative hypotheses ........................................................................................................................... 46
Two-tailed hypothesis test......................................................................................................................................... 46
5-step model voor hypothesis testing......................................................................................................................... 46
Student’s t-distribution voor kleine samples .............................................................................................................. 48
Testing sample proportions ....................................................................................................................................... 49
Belangrijke keuzes in hypothesis testing .................................................................................................................... 50
Type 1 and type 2 errors............................................................................................................................................. 51
Two sample testing .............................................................................................................................. 52
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................. 52
Null hypothesis ......................................................................................................................................................... 52
Alternate hypothesis ................................................................................................................................................. 52
Formule bij grote steekproeven.................................................................................................................................. 52
Stappenplan bij two-sample hypothesis testing.......................................................................................................... 53
Formule bij kleine steekproeven ................................................................................................................................ 54
Hypothesetoetsing met proporties (grote steekproeven) ............................................................................................. 55
Factoren die beslissing beïnvloeden .......................................................................................................................... 55
SPSS in action ............................................................................................................................ 56
Normality tests .................................................................................................................................... 56
Verbanden tussen 2 variabelen ............................................................................................................ 57
Nominal & ordinal ..................................................................................................................................................... 57
Surveys ..................................................................................................................................... 61
Scale construction............................................................................................................................... 61
Waarom werken met schalen? .................................................................................................................................. 61
Twee types van schalen ....................................................................................................................... 61
Likert scales ............................................................................................................................................................. 61
Guttman scales ........................................................................................................................................................ 62
Vergelijking Likert vs Guttman.................................................................................................................................... 64
Voordelen van schaalconstructie .............................................................................................................................. 65
Onafhankelijke & afhankelijke variabelen ................................................................................................................... 65
3
, Research design & methodology........................................................................................................... 65
Cross-sectional design ............................................................................................................................................. 65
Longitudinal designs ................................................................................................................................................. 66
Time series design .................................................................................................................................................... 66
Panel designs ........................................................................................................................................................... 67
Introduction to survey research (cross-sectional) ................................................................................. 67
Wanneer zijn surveys geschikt? ................................................................................................................................. 67
Algemene kenmerken van survey research ................................................................................................................. 67
Sterktes en zwaktes survey research.......................................................................................................................... 67
Response rate .......................................................................................................................................................... 68
Survey modes ...................................................................................................................................... 69
Mail surveys & self-administered questionnaires ........................................................................................................ 69
Face-to-face interview surveys .................................................................................................................................. 69
Telephone surveys .................................................................................................................................................... 69
Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) ...................................................................................................... 70
Internet (web) surveys ............................................................................................................................................... 70
Comparison of survey methods ................................................................................................................................. 71
Secondary analysis of survey data ............................................................................................................................. 71
Questionnaire construction ................................................................................................................. 71
Structuur van een goede vragenlijst ........................................................................................................................... 72
Typen vragen ............................................................................................................................................................ 72
Closed or open-ended question responses ................................................................................................................ 73
Filter- en vervolgvragen ............................................................................................................................................. 74
Principes van vraagstelling ........................................................................................................................................ 74
Problemen................................................................................................................................................................ 74
Surveyproces ...................................................................................................................................... 75
Experiments .............................................................................................................................. 76
Experiments in (social) science ............................................................................................................ 76
The research process ........................................................................................................................... 76
Pre-empirical/conceptual phase ............................................................................................................................... 76
Designing & planning................................................................................................................................................. 77
What is an experiment? ........................................................................................................................ 77
Gecontroleerde setting (controlled setting) ................................................................................................................ 77
Causal relationship ................................................................................................................................................... 78
Types of experiments ........................................................................................................................... 79
‘True experimental’ designs ....................................................................................................................................... 79
Quasi-experimentele en pre-experimentele ontwerpen .............................................................................................. 81
Within-subjects & between subjects .......................................................................................................................... 81
4
, Factorial designs ...................................................................................................................................................... 82
Prepararing the experiment .................................................................................................................. 82
Participanten & steekproefgrootte ............................................................................................................................. 83
Pretest ..................................................................................................................................................................... 84
Examples ............................................................................................................................................ 84
Quasi experimental design ........................................................................................................................................ 84
Sources of error ................................................................................................................................... 85
Interviewing ............................................................................................................................... 85
The art of listening ............................................................................................................................... 85
Being a good listener ................................................................................................................................................. 85
Being a better listener ............................................................................................................................................... 86
Paralanguage............................................................................................................................................................ 86
Interviews ........................................................................................................................................... 86
Soorten interviews .................................................................................................................................................... 86
Welke vorm kiezen? .................................................................................................................................................. 87
7 stages of an interview (Kvale, 1996) .................................................................................................... 87
The interview guide .............................................................................................................................. 87
Preparing your interview guide ................................................................................................................................... 87
Voorbereiding van het interview ................................................................................................................................. 87
Soorten vragen (Kvale) ......................................................................................................................... 88
Directe/structurerende (guiding) ................................................................................................................................ 88
Doorvragen (probing) ................................................................................................................................................ 88
Fasen in vraagstelling (Charmaz, 2002) ...................................................................................................................... 88
Kwaliteitscriteria (Kvale, 1996) ............................................................................................................. 88
Kristi’s cautions (nuttige waarschuwingen) ................................................................................................................ 88
Preparing for the interview ................................................................................................................... 88
Opnemen & noteren .................................................................................................................................................. 88
Transcriptie .............................................................................................................................................................. 89
Focus groups ............................................................................................................................. 89
Wat zijn focusgroepen? ........................................................................................................................ 89
Focusgroepen ...................................................................................................................................... 89
Focus groups vs. Observation.................................................................................................................................... 89
Focus groups vs individual interviews ........................................................................................................................ 89
Soorten focusgroepen.......................................................................................................................... 89
Toepassingen ...................................................................................................................................... 90
Voor- en nadelen.................................................................................................................................. 90
Voordelen................................................................................................................................................................. 90
5
, Nadelen ................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Groupthink .......................................................................................................................................... 90
Kenmerken ............................................................................................................................................................... 90
Uitvoering van focusgroepen ................................................................................................................ 90
Selecteren van deelnemers ....................................................................................................................................... 90
Start van de focusgroep............................................................................................................................................. 91
Vragen stellen ........................................................................................................................................................... 91
Moderator ................................................................................................................................................................ 92
Opname & transcriptie .............................................................................................................................................. 92
Do’s & dont’s bij marketingfocusgroepen (Joanne L. Krotz) .................................................................... 93
Do’s ......................................................................................................................................................................... 93
Luisteren naar de ‘loudmouth’ ................................................................................................................................... 93
Ethische aandachtspunten ....................................................................................................................................... 93
Ethnography .............................................................................................................................. 93
Wat is ethnography? ............................................................................................................................ 93
Participant observation ........................................................................................................................ 93
Insider vs outsider..................................................................................................................................................... 94
Waarom etnografie? ............................................................................................................................ 94
Field notes (veldnotities) ........................................................................................................................................... 94
Key informants .................................................................................................................................... 94
Criteria voor selectie ................................................................................................................................................. 94
Rol als gatekeeper .................................................................................................................................................... 94
Belang bij participatief onderzoek .............................................................................................................................. 95
Ethnographic chats .............................................................................................................................. 95
Gebruik van microfoons & opname ....................................................................................................... 95
Ethnography als student ...................................................................................................................... 95
Mogelijke vormen ...................................................................................................................................................... 95
Voor studenten ......................................................................................................................................................... 95
6
