Surveytechnieken en experimentele designs in sociale wetenschappen
Table of Contents
Inleiding ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Situering ........................................................................................................................................................9
Basisconcepten van kwantitatief onderzoek ................................................................................ 9
Verwondering ................................................................................................................................................9
Uni- en bivariaat onderzoek ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Multivariaat onderzoek .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Overzicht .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Kwalitatief – kwantitatief .............................................................................................................................. 12
2 aanvullende onderzoekstechnieken ........................................................................................................................ 12
Complementair – niet contradictorisch ...................................................................................................................... 13
Kwalitatief onderzoek volgens Creswell (2002) ........................................................................................................... 14
Kwantitatief onderzoek.............................................................................................................................................. 15
Dimensie kwalitatief – kwantitatief............................................................................................................................. 15
Onderzoekscyclus .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Theorie versus praktijk ................................................................................................................................. 17
Theoretisch gedreven benadering .............................................................................................................................. 17
Praktijkgedreven benadering ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Theorie staat ten dienste van praktijk ......................................................................................................................... 18
Functies ................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Methodologische doel .................................................................................................................................. 19
Beschrijvend onderzoek ............................................................................................................................................ 19
Correlationeel onderzoek .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Toetsend: experiment ............................................................................................................................................... 22
Toetsend: quasi-experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 23
Verschil quasi-experiment vs correlationeel onderzoek .............................................................................................. 23
Overzicht typen onderzoek ........................................................................................................................................ 23
Structuur van wetenschappelijk artikel ....................................................................................... 24
Situering ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
Structuur wetenschappelijk artikel ............................................................................................................................ 24
Verwondering .............................................................................................................................................. 24
1
, Operationalisatie van concept ...................................................................................................................... 26
Concept ................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Conceptuele definitie................................................................................................................................................ 26
Operationele definitie ............................................................................................................................................... 26
Basisprincipes van onderzoek ...................................................................................................................... 27
Empirisch ................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Systematisch ............................................................................................................................................................ 27
Intersubjectief en repliceerbaar ................................................................................................................................. 28
Cyclisch en zelf-corrigerend ...................................................................................................................................... 28
Voorbeeld .................................................................................................................................................... 29
Titel .......................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Methode ................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Resultaten ................................................................................................................................................................ 32
Discussie ................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Vragenlijstconstructie ................................................................................................................ 32
Inleiding ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
Survey ...................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Open vs gesloten vragen............................................................................................................................... 34
Open vragen ............................................................................................................................................................. 34
Gesloten vragen........................................................................................................................................................ 34
Meetniveau van variabelen ........................................................................................................................... 35
Categorische variabelen ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Metrische variabelen................................................................................................................................................. 36
Hiërarchie van meetniveaus ...................................................................................................................................... 37
Het belang van de juiste vraagstelling ........................................................................................................... 38
Inwilligingstendens ................................................................................................................................................... 40
Spreiding .................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Gevalideerde schaal ................................................................................................................................................. 40
Soorten vragen ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Visuele vragen (visuals) ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Vignette .................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Unipolaire – bipolaire ................................................................................................................................................ 41
2
, Semantisch differentiaal ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Multiple response ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
Soorten antwoordcategorieën ...................................................................................................................... 42
Exhaustief & mutueel exclusief .................................................................................................................................. 42
Logische volgorde (richting) ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Aantal en even/oneven .............................................................................................................................................. 43
Geen mening/ik weet het niet .................................................................................................................................... 44
Symmetrie ................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Gelijke verwoording .................................................................................................................................................. 44
Visueel gelijke afstand .............................................................................................................................................. 44
Schalen om concepten te meten .................................................................................................................. 44
First things first ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Zoektocht ................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Pretesten vragen .......................................................................................................................................... 45
Pretesten vragen ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
Pretesten bij wie?...................................................................................................................................................... 46
De vragenlijst ............................................................................................................................................................ 46
Structuur vragenlijst..................................................................................................................................... 47
Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Informed consent ..................................................................................................................................................... 47
Taal routing............................................................................................................................................................... 47
Operationalisatie ...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Modules/blocks ........................................................................................................................................................ 47
Gevoelige vragen ...................................................................................................................................................... 48
Ethische aanvraag ........................................................................................................................................ 49
Ethische goedkeuring ................................................................................................................................................ 49
Participanten rekruteren & stakeholders betrekken..................................................................... 49
Benaderen ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Hoe benaderen we stakeholders? .............................................................................................................................. 49
Hoe benaderen we respondenten? ............................................................................................................................ 49
Informatiebrief............................................................................................................................................. 50
Doel ......................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Inhoud...................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Promo-materiaal (flyer/social media) ............................................................................................................ 50
3
, Hoe ziet een goede flyer eruit? ................................................................................................................................... 50
Inhoud...................................................................................................................................................................... 51
QR-code ................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Soorten surveys ........................................................................................................................................... 51
Postale schriftelijke surveys (paper-and-pencil) ......................................................................................................... 51
Telefonische surveys................................................................................................................................................. 52
Face-to-face surveys................................................................................................................................................. 53
Internetsurveys ......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Datamatrix................................................................................................................................. 57
Structuur datamatrix .................................................................................................................................... 57
Vragenlijst en databestand ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Variabelen en onderzoeksvragen ............................................................................................................................... 58
Opbouw datamatrix .................................................................................................................................................. 59
Variabelen labelen (codeboek) ..................................................................................................................... 59
Naamgeving variabelen ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Analyse eenheden (unit of analysis) .............................................................................................................. 61
Individuele survey (onafhankelijke steekproef) ........................................................................................................... 61
Huishoudsurvey (onafhankelijke steekproef) .............................................................................................................. 61
Key informant survey (onafhankelijke steekproef) ....................................................................................................... 61
Multi-actor survey (afhankelijke steekproef) ............................................................................................................... 62
Analyse-eenheden en tijdperspectief ............................................................................................................ 63
Cross-sectioneel (onafhankelijke steekproef) ............................................................................................................ 63
Repeated cross-sectioneel (onafhankelijke steekproef) .............................................................................................. 63
Longitudinaal panel (afhankelijke steekproef) ............................................................................................................ 63
Longitudinaal cohorte (afhankelijke steekproef) ......................................................................................................... 63
Internetpanel (afhankelijke steekproef) ...................................................................................................................... 64
Case kenmerken (flowchart)...................................................................................................................................... 65
Case kenmerken (unieke nummers)........................................................................................................................... 65
Excel ........................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Waarden labelen (codeboek) ........................................................................................................................ 68
Originele waarden ..................................................................................................................................................... 68
Gehercodeerde waarden ........................................................................................................................................... 68
Dataverwerking .......................................................................................................................... 70
4
, Descriptieve statistiek ................................................................................................................................. 70
Participantenbeschrijving .......................................................................................................................................... 70
Onderzoeksfase........................................................................................................................................................ 70
Frequentietabellen ...................................................................................................................................... 70
Beschrijvende vs inferentiële statistiek ...................................................................................................................... 70
Beschrijvende statistiek ............................................................................................................................................ 71
Centraliteitsmaten ....................................................................................................................................... 73
Modus ...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Mediaan en fractielen................................................................................................................................................ 73
Gemiddelde (𝑥) ......................................................................................................................................................... 74
Beperking van centrummaten .................................................................................................................................... 74
Spreidingsmaten .......................................................................................................................................... 75
Bereik of range (R) ..................................................................................................................................................... 75
Interkwartielafstand (Q) ............................................................................................................................................ 76
Variantie en standaardafwijking ................................................................................................................................. 76
Maten van vorm ........................................................................................................................................... 77
Scheefheid (skewness) ............................................................................................................................................. 78
Kurtosis (steilheid) .................................................................................................................................................... 78
Twee variabelen combineren ........................................................................................................................ 79
2 variabelen combineren ........................................................................................................................................... 80
Combinaties ............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Steekproeftrekking en inferentiële statistiek ............................................................................... 83
Onderzoeksonderwerp: vorm en doelgroep ................................................................................................... 83
Keuze ....................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Voorbeelden ............................................................................................................................................................. 83
Populatie en steekproef ............................................................................................................................... 83
Populatie .................................................................................................................................................................. 83
Populatie of steekproef? ........................................................................................................................................... 84
Onderzoekseenheden ............................................................................................................................................... 84
Steekproefeenheden................................................................................................................................................. 85
Aard van steekproef ..................................................................................................................................... 85
Aselecte steekproef .................................................................................................................................................. 85
Selecte steekproef .................................................................................................................................................... 88
5
, Inferentiële statistiek ................................................................................................................................... 90
Het belang van de normale verdeling ......................................................................................................................... 90
Steekproevenverdeling .............................................................................................................................................. 93
Centrale limietstelling (CLS) ...................................................................................................................................... 95
Intervalschatting van populatieparameters ................................................................................................................ 96
Steekproefomvang .................................................................................................................................................... 98
Statistische hypothesetoetsing................................................................................................................................ 100
Experimenteel onderzoek ......................................................................................................... 102
Discovering cause & effect ......................................................................................................................... 102
Wat is experimenteel onderzoek? ............................................................................................................................ 102
Causaliteit .............................................................................................................................................................. 102
Eigenschappen van experimenten ........................................................................................................................... 102
Fases in experimenteel onderzoek ........................................................................................................................... 105
Ethics & famous experiments in history....................................................................................................... 105
Impact vrouwen onderschat .................................................................................................................................... 105
The scurvy studies .................................................................................................................................................. 106
Charles Peirce ........................................................................................................................................................ 106
Ronald Fisher’s plots & tea ...................................................................................................................................... 106
B.F. Skinner: small samples, high tech ..................................................................................................................... 107
Stanley Milgram shocks the world ............................................................................................................................ 107
Zimbardo’s gevangenis ........................................................................................................................................... 108
Conclusie .................................................................................................................................................. 108
Experimenteel design ............................................................................................................... 109
Theory, literature & hypotheses .................................................................................................................. 109
Experimenteel onderzoek ........................................................................................................................................ 109
Theorie ................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................................................ 110
Opbouw literatuurstudie naar hypotheses ............................................................................................................... 111
Veelgemaakte fouten .............................................................................................................................................. 114
Types of experiments ................................................................................................................................. 115
Typologie van experimenten .................................................................................................................................... 115
Pre-experimentele designs ...................................................................................................................................... 115
Hawthorne effect .................................................................................................................................................... 116
Demand effect ........................................................................................................................................................ 116
6
Table of Contents
Inleiding ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Situering ........................................................................................................................................................9
Basisconcepten van kwantitatief onderzoek ................................................................................ 9
Verwondering ................................................................................................................................................9
Uni- en bivariaat onderzoek ......................................................................................................................................... 9
Multivariaat onderzoek .............................................................................................................................................. 11
Overzicht .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
Kwalitatief – kwantitatief .............................................................................................................................. 12
2 aanvullende onderzoekstechnieken ........................................................................................................................ 12
Complementair – niet contradictorisch ...................................................................................................................... 13
Kwalitatief onderzoek volgens Creswell (2002) ........................................................................................................... 14
Kwantitatief onderzoek.............................................................................................................................................. 15
Dimensie kwalitatief – kwantitatief............................................................................................................................. 15
Onderzoekscyclus .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Theorie versus praktijk ................................................................................................................................. 17
Theoretisch gedreven benadering .............................................................................................................................. 17
Praktijkgedreven benadering ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Theorie staat ten dienste van praktijk ......................................................................................................................... 18
Functies ................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Methodologische doel .................................................................................................................................. 19
Beschrijvend onderzoek ............................................................................................................................................ 19
Correlationeel onderzoek .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Toetsend: experiment ............................................................................................................................................... 22
Toetsend: quasi-experiment ...................................................................................................................................... 23
Verschil quasi-experiment vs correlationeel onderzoek .............................................................................................. 23
Overzicht typen onderzoek ........................................................................................................................................ 23
Structuur van wetenschappelijk artikel ....................................................................................... 24
Situering ...................................................................................................................................................... 24
Structuur wetenschappelijk artikel ............................................................................................................................ 24
Verwondering .............................................................................................................................................. 24
1
, Operationalisatie van concept ...................................................................................................................... 26
Concept ................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Conceptuele definitie................................................................................................................................................ 26
Operationele definitie ............................................................................................................................................... 26
Basisprincipes van onderzoek ...................................................................................................................... 27
Empirisch ................................................................................................................................................................. 27
Systematisch ............................................................................................................................................................ 27
Intersubjectief en repliceerbaar ................................................................................................................................. 28
Cyclisch en zelf-corrigerend ...................................................................................................................................... 28
Voorbeeld .................................................................................................................................................... 29
Titel .......................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Methode ................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Resultaten ................................................................................................................................................................ 32
Discussie ................................................................................................................................................................. 32
Vragenlijstconstructie ................................................................................................................ 32
Inleiding ...................................................................................................................................................... 32
Survey ...................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Open vs gesloten vragen............................................................................................................................... 34
Open vragen ............................................................................................................................................................. 34
Gesloten vragen........................................................................................................................................................ 34
Meetniveau van variabelen ........................................................................................................................... 35
Categorische variabelen ........................................................................................................................................... 35
Metrische variabelen................................................................................................................................................. 36
Hiërarchie van meetniveaus ...................................................................................................................................... 37
Het belang van de juiste vraagstelling ........................................................................................................... 38
Inwilligingstendens ................................................................................................................................................... 40
Spreiding .................................................................................................................................................................. 40
Gevalideerde schaal ................................................................................................................................................. 40
Soorten vragen ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Visuele vragen (visuals) ............................................................................................................................................. 41
Vignette .................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Unipolaire – bipolaire ................................................................................................................................................ 41
2
, Semantisch differentiaal ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Multiple response ..................................................................................................................................................... 42
Soorten antwoordcategorieën ...................................................................................................................... 42
Exhaustief & mutueel exclusief .................................................................................................................................. 42
Logische volgorde (richting) ....................................................................................................................................... 43
Aantal en even/oneven .............................................................................................................................................. 43
Geen mening/ik weet het niet .................................................................................................................................... 44
Symmetrie ................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Gelijke verwoording .................................................................................................................................................. 44
Visueel gelijke afstand .............................................................................................................................................. 44
Schalen om concepten te meten .................................................................................................................. 44
First things first ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Zoektocht ................................................................................................................................................................. 44
Pretesten vragen .......................................................................................................................................... 45
Pretesten vragen ....................................................................................................................................................... 46
Pretesten bij wie?...................................................................................................................................................... 46
De vragenlijst ............................................................................................................................................................ 46
Structuur vragenlijst..................................................................................................................................... 47
Inleiding ................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Informed consent ..................................................................................................................................................... 47
Taal routing............................................................................................................................................................... 47
Operationalisatie ...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Modules/blocks ........................................................................................................................................................ 47
Gevoelige vragen ...................................................................................................................................................... 48
Ethische aanvraag ........................................................................................................................................ 49
Ethische goedkeuring ................................................................................................................................................ 49
Participanten rekruteren & stakeholders betrekken..................................................................... 49
Benaderen ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Hoe benaderen we stakeholders? .............................................................................................................................. 49
Hoe benaderen we respondenten? ............................................................................................................................ 49
Informatiebrief............................................................................................................................................. 50
Doel ......................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Inhoud...................................................................................................................................................................... 50
Promo-materiaal (flyer/social media) ............................................................................................................ 50
3
, Hoe ziet een goede flyer eruit? ................................................................................................................................... 50
Inhoud...................................................................................................................................................................... 51
QR-code ................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Soorten surveys ........................................................................................................................................... 51
Postale schriftelijke surveys (paper-and-pencil) ......................................................................................................... 51
Telefonische surveys................................................................................................................................................. 52
Face-to-face surveys................................................................................................................................................. 53
Internetsurveys ......................................................................................................................................................... 54
Datamatrix................................................................................................................................. 57
Structuur datamatrix .................................................................................................................................... 57
Vragenlijst en databestand ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Variabelen en onderzoeksvragen ............................................................................................................................... 58
Opbouw datamatrix .................................................................................................................................................. 59
Variabelen labelen (codeboek) ..................................................................................................................... 59
Naamgeving variabelen ............................................................................................................................................. 59
Analyse eenheden (unit of analysis) .............................................................................................................. 61
Individuele survey (onafhankelijke steekproef) ........................................................................................................... 61
Huishoudsurvey (onafhankelijke steekproef) .............................................................................................................. 61
Key informant survey (onafhankelijke steekproef) ....................................................................................................... 61
Multi-actor survey (afhankelijke steekproef) ............................................................................................................... 62
Analyse-eenheden en tijdperspectief ............................................................................................................ 63
Cross-sectioneel (onafhankelijke steekproef) ............................................................................................................ 63
Repeated cross-sectioneel (onafhankelijke steekproef) .............................................................................................. 63
Longitudinaal panel (afhankelijke steekproef) ............................................................................................................ 63
Longitudinaal cohorte (afhankelijke steekproef) ......................................................................................................... 63
Internetpanel (afhankelijke steekproef) ...................................................................................................................... 64
Case kenmerken (flowchart)...................................................................................................................................... 65
Case kenmerken (unieke nummers)........................................................................................................................... 65
Excel ........................................................................................................................................................................ 66
Waarden labelen (codeboek) ........................................................................................................................ 68
Originele waarden ..................................................................................................................................................... 68
Gehercodeerde waarden ........................................................................................................................................... 68
Dataverwerking .......................................................................................................................... 70
4
, Descriptieve statistiek ................................................................................................................................. 70
Participantenbeschrijving .......................................................................................................................................... 70
Onderzoeksfase........................................................................................................................................................ 70
Frequentietabellen ...................................................................................................................................... 70
Beschrijvende vs inferentiële statistiek ...................................................................................................................... 70
Beschrijvende statistiek ............................................................................................................................................ 71
Centraliteitsmaten ....................................................................................................................................... 73
Modus ...................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Mediaan en fractielen................................................................................................................................................ 73
Gemiddelde (𝑥) ......................................................................................................................................................... 74
Beperking van centrummaten .................................................................................................................................... 74
Spreidingsmaten .......................................................................................................................................... 75
Bereik of range (R) ..................................................................................................................................................... 75
Interkwartielafstand (Q) ............................................................................................................................................ 76
Variantie en standaardafwijking ................................................................................................................................. 76
Maten van vorm ........................................................................................................................................... 77
Scheefheid (skewness) ............................................................................................................................................. 78
Kurtosis (steilheid) .................................................................................................................................................... 78
Twee variabelen combineren ........................................................................................................................ 79
2 variabelen combineren ........................................................................................................................................... 80
Combinaties ............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Steekproeftrekking en inferentiële statistiek ............................................................................... 83
Onderzoeksonderwerp: vorm en doelgroep ................................................................................................... 83
Keuze ....................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Voorbeelden ............................................................................................................................................................. 83
Populatie en steekproef ............................................................................................................................... 83
Populatie .................................................................................................................................................................. 83
Populatie of steekproef? ........................................................................................................................................... 84
Onderzoekseenheden ............................................................................................................................................... 84
Steekproefeenheden................................................................................................................................................. 85
Aard van steekproef ..................................................................................................................................... 85
Aselecte steekproef .................................................................................................................................................. 85
Selecte steekproef .................................................................................................................................................... 88
5
, Inferentiële statistiek ................................................................................................................................... 90
Het belang van de normale verdeling ......................................................................................................................... 90
Steekproevenverdeling .............................................................................................................................................. 93
Centrale limietstelling (CLS) ...................................................................................................................................... 95
Intervalschatting van populatieparameters ................................................................................................................ 96
Steekproefomvang .................................................................................................................................................... 98
Statistische hypothesetoetsing................................................................................................................................ 100
Experimenteel onderzoek ......................................................................................................... 102
Discovering cause & effect ......................................................................................................................... 102
Wat is experimenteel onderzoek? ............................................................................................................................ 102
Causaliteit .............................................................................................................................................................. 102
Eigenschappen van experimenten ........................................................................................................................... 102
Fases in experimenteel onderzoek ........................................................................................................................... 105
Ethics & famous experiments in history....................................................................................................... 105
Impact vrouwen onderschat .................................................................................................................................... 105
The scurvy studies .................................................................................................................................................. 106
Charles Peirce ........................................................................................................................................................ 106
Ronald Fisher’s plots & tea ...................................................................................................................................... 106
B.F. Skinner: small samples, high tech ..................................................................................................................... 107
Stanley Milgram shocks the world ............................................................................................................................ 107
Zimbardo’s gevangenis ........................................................................................................................................... 108
Conclusie .................................................................................................................................................. 108
Experimenteel design ............................................................................................................... 109
Theory, literature & hypotheses .................................................................................................................. 109
Experimenteel onderzoek ........................................................................................................................................ 109
Theorie ................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................................................ 110
Opbouw literatuurstudie naar hypotheses ............................................................................................................... 111
Veelgemaakte fouten .............................................................................................................................................. 114
Types of experiments ................................................................................................................................. 115
Typologie van experimenten .................................................................................................................................... 115
Pre-experimentele designs ...................................................................................................................................... 115
Hawthorne effect .................................................................................................................................................... 116
Demand effect ........................................................................................................................................................ 116
6
