Migration law
Introduction..................................................................................................1
Lecture 1. History, Institutional Framework & Legal Migration.....................4
Cases........................................................................................................5
I – The evolution of EU competences in the field of migration & asylum 10
A. Historical evolution of EU competences..........................................10
B. EU competences in the field as they stand today after the Treaty of
Lisbon..................................................................................................12
C. Specificities of the EU institutional framework for this area of law..17
D. Political impulses to steer the legislative agenda forward..............19
II – The specificities of the EU legal order and their relevance for
migration and asylum law.......................................................................20
A. Principles and values guiding the process of European integration.20
B. Primacy and direct effect [reminder from Public Law II]..................20
C. The protection of fundamental rights in the EU...............................21
D. The principle of conferral or attributed competences.....................21
Conclusions & link with upcoming lectures.............................................22
Lecture 2. The Functioning of the Schengen Area......................................23
Introduction.............................................................................................24
I. A quick overview of the ‘Schengen area’.............................................24
A. History of the Schengen Area: from international law to
‘mainstream’ EU law............................................................................24
B. Geography of the Schengen Area: differentiated integration..........25
C. Key idea and legal texts..................................................................25
II. An area with common external borders (SBC, TITLE II).......................27
A. Crossing of external borders (Art. 5, last amended in 2024)...........27
B. Entry conditions for TCNs (Art. 6, last amended in 2018 & 2025). . .28
C. Conduct of border checks (Art.7, as last amended in 2021)............28
D. Border checks on persons (Art.8, amendments in 2017, 2018, 2019
& 2021)................................................................................................29
E. Relaxation of border checks (Art.9).................................................29
F. Practicalities (Arts.10-12).................................................................29
i
, G. Border (Art.13, amended in 2024)..................................................29
H. Refusal of entry (Art.14)..................................................................30
III. For an area without internal border controls? (SBC, Title III)..............33
A. An area without internal border controls.........................................33
B. Temporary reintroduction of border control at internal borders.......37
IV. Visa and travel authorisation.............................................................45
A. Joint visa lists provided at EU level..................................................45
B. Agreements between the EU and Third States (Infra).....................46
C. Criteria and types of visa.................................................................46
D. Travel authorization for TCNs with a visa exemption: forthcoming
2026.....................................................................................................46
E. Freedom to travel............................................................................46
V. The machinery behind Schengen: see upcoming lecture....................47
Lecture 3 & 4. The Common European Asylum System. An overview of the
functioning of the Dublin system & key challenges...................................48
I. Introduction..........................................................................................49
A. The History of the European Asylum System: from international law
to ‘mainstream’ EU law........................................................................49
B. The Geography of the European Asylum System: variable geometry
.............................................................................................................50
C. Key Ideas and Instruments behind what is today the ‘Common
European Asylum System’...................................................................50
D. The Context.....................................................................................50
II. Solidarity towards TCNs: a set of common EU rules............................55
A. Qualification Directive.....................................................................55
B. Procedures Directive........................................................................57
C. Reception Conditions Directive........................................................58
Cbis. Recent developments regarding both Procedures and Reception
Directives.............................................................................................59
D. Temporary Protection Directive.......................................................61
III – Allocation of Member States’ responsibilities: the system established
by the Dublin III Regulation.....................................................................64
A. The system on which the Temporary Protection Directive as
currently implemented relies (see Section II)......................................64
B. The system established by the Dublin III Regulation.......................64
ii
, C. Upcoming!.......................................................................................70
IV – Testing Member States’ Responsibilities under the European Asylum
System: dilemmas..................................................................................70
A. The ‘refugee crisis’ from 2015-2016................................................70
B. Transit zones at the EU’s external borders: the Hungarian example
.............................................................................................................73
C. Will, and how will, the Pact on Migration & Asylum address these
challenges?..........................................................................................74
D. Responding to hybrid threats: weaponisation of migration and
strengthening security at the EU’s external borders...........................75
IV – The machinery behind the Common Asylum System [see related
Lecture]...................................................................................................75
Lecture 5. Irregular migration in the EU.....................................................76
Introduction.............................................................................................76
I - Addressing unauthorized entry, transit, residence and employment. 76
1. Legal framework in relation to facilitating unauthorized entry, transit
and residence......................................................................................76
2. Legal framework in relation to employment of illegally staying TCNs
.............................................................................................................80
II – Return/re-admission..........................................................................81
1. Procedure inside the EU, before return to non-EU State..................81
2. The external dimension of the law on returns (guest lecture).........89
III – Addressing human trafficking [European criminal law]..................103
IV – Key instruments of the 2024 Reform, applying as of June 2026.....103
Lecture 6. The machinery behind EU Migration and Asylum Policy..........105
I. Introduction........................................................................................105
II. Monitoring & Evaluation Mechanisms...............................................105
III. The role of EU agencies: selected examples....................................107
A. The European Border and Coast Guard (Agency)..........................107
B. EASO: towards a European Union Agency for Asylum...................110
IV. The role of Data Bases.....................................................................110
V. The importance of financial support.................................................111
iii
,iv
,Introduction
Migration law is an overall young branch of law which analyses the
developments in legislation and jurisprudence around three important
social questions:
• which migration options are foreseen for aliens to reside on the
territory for a short or long term period, and how is this procedurally
organised?
• Which (residential) protection must countries foresee in the context
of the asylum procedure? Is migration for economic purposes
(employment as an employee or starting an independent activity)
still possible for people coming from outside the European Union?
Which rules apply with regard to family reunification? Can non-
accompanied minor aliens – youngsters arriving without parents or
guardian – acquire a residence status?
• which (legal) instruments are employed in the combat against
undesired migration (migration enforcement)?
• Can the social protection of rejected aliens be reduced and/or
limited, and to which extent can this be done without breaching
fundamental rights? Can, and if so, under which conditions, aliens
without a residence permit be deprived of their freedom with the
view of a forced return? Which role is assigned to criminal law
provisions in the context of migration enforcement?
• which (legal) instruments are employed with the view of furthering
the participation and integration of newcomers and aliens which
already reside (sometimes since a long time) on the territory?
• Do we opt for a flexible acquisition of Belgian nationality or do we
bundle the acquisition of nationality to strict (integration)
conditions? Do we foresee a system of integration, obligatory or
optional? To which extent can integration (and the willingness to
integrate) be bundled with social rights?
Migration law is not linked to a specific competence level. In Belgium,
several competences reside with the federal government (residence
regulation, nationality legislation), while other aspects are governed by the
communities (employment of aliens, integration). Over the last two
decades the European Union has also become an important actor in
migration law.
Course materials
1
, As concerns the lectures of Steven Bouckaert, students can make use of a
textbook (more information will follow during the first lecture) and of
additional information which shall be made available on Toledo.
As concerns the part taught by Elise Muir, reading instructions and
materials shall be made available on Toledo a week before each lecture. In
addition, immediately before each lecture a concise outline of the lecture
will be provided on Toledo.
Examination format
The exam consists of two parts, one part for each lecturer (each
accounting for 10 out of 20 points).
On the one hand, the main exam consists of a two-hour, closed-book
written exam. Therefore, only official documents (legislation and case-
law) are allowed. The written part of the exam will account for 2/3 of
the final grade.
On the other hand, the exam, for both the Belgian and European sections,
is complemented by an oral component that counts for one-third of
the final grade. The oral component takes place on the same day as
the written exam. It lasts 10 minutes per professor. The oral
examination is open book. It consists of an oral presentation and
discussion of a paper that students can write in advance (and must
also submit to the professors a few days before the exam). The paper
must be a maximum of two pages, and its submission is a prerequisite for
participating in the oral examination. This paper – to which the standard
Faculty rules apply - serves as the basis for discussion with the
professor. The professor evaluates the answers given by the
student during the oral examination, and this evaluation corresponds
to one-third of the final grade.
Students attending a migration law moot court may be exempted from the
oral part of the examination, subject to approval by the Professors. The
participation in the moot court will account for 1/3 of the final
grade.
For the part of the examination that relates to the EU dimension, the
course and reading materials are in English. The examination questions
will therefore also be in English. Students are strongly encouraged to
answer in English. Yet, students are allowed to answer in Dutch if they
wish to do so. The examination is intended to test legal skills; it is not a
language test. While answers need to be clearly expressed, structured,
legally sound and well-informed, points will not be deducted for purely
linguistic mistakes. Students are allowed to bring dictionaries. In any case,
the choice of language must overall be consistent.
2
Introduction..................................................................................................1
Lecture 1. History, Institutional Framework & Legal Migration.....................4
Cases........................................................................................................5
I – The evolution of EU competences in the field of migration & asylum 10
A. Historical evolution of EU competences..........................................10
B. EU competences in the field as they stand today after the Treaty of
Lisbon..................................................................................................12
C. Specificities of the EU institutional framework for this area of law..17
D. Political impulses to steer the legislative agenda forward..............19
II – The specificities of the EU legal order and their relevance for
migration and asylum law.......................................................................20
A. Principles and values guiding the process of European integration.20
B. Primacy and direct effect [reminder from Public Law II]..................20
C. The protection of fundamental rights in the EU...............................21
D. The principle of conferral or attributed competences.....................21
Conclusions & link with upcoming lectures.............................................22
Lecture 2. The Functioning of the Schengen Area......................................23
Introduction.............................................................................................24
I. A quick overview of the ‘Schengen area’.............................................24
A. History of the Schengen Area: from international law to
‘mainstream’ EU law............................................................................24
B. Geography of the Schengen Area: differentiated integration..........25
C. Key idea and legal texts..................................................................25
II. An area with common external borders (SBC, TITLE II).......................27
A. Crossing of external borders (Art. 5, last amended in 2024)...........27
B. Entry conditions for TCNs (Art. 6, last amended in 2018 & 2025). . .28
C. Conduct of border checks (Art.7, as last amended in 2021)............28
D. Border checks on persons (Art.8, amendments in 2017, 2018, 2019
& 2021)................................................................................................29
E. Relaxation of border checks (Art.9).................................................29
F. Practicalities (Arts.10-12).................................................................29
i
, G. Border (Art.13, amended in 2024)..................................................29
H. Refusal of entry (Art.14)..................................................................30
III. For an area without internal border controls? (SBC, Title III)..............33
A. An area without internal border controls.........................................33
B. Temporary reintroduction of border control at internal borders.......37
IV. Visa and travel authorisation.............................................................45
A. Joint visa lists provided at EU level..................................................45
B. Agreements between the EU and Third States (Infra).....................46
C. Criteria and types of visa.................................................................46
D. Travel authorization for TCNs with a visa exemption: forthcoming
2026.....................................................................................................46
E. Freedom to travel............................................................................46
V. The machinery behind Schengen: see upcoming lecture....................47
Lecture 3 & 4. The Common European Asylum System. An overview of the
functioning of the Dublin system & key challenges...................................48
I. Introduction..........................................................................................49
A. The History of the European Asylum System: from international law
to ‘mainstream’ EU law........................................................................49
B. The Geography of the European Asylum System: variable geometry
.............................................................................................................50
C. Key Ideas and Instruments behind what is today the ‘Common
European Asylum System’...................................................................50
D. The Context.....................................................................................50
II. Solidarity towards TCNs: a set of common EU rules............................55
A. Qualification Directive.....................................................................55
B. Procedures Directive........................................................................57
C. Reception Conditions Directive........................................................58
Cbis. Recent developments regarding both Procedures and Reception
Directives.............................................................................................59
D. Temporary Protection Directive.......................................................61
III – Allocation of Member States’ responsibilities: the system established
by the Dublin III Regulation.....................................................................64
A. The system on which the Temporary Protection Directive as
currently implemented relies (see Section II)......................................64
B. The system established by the Dublin III Regulation.......................64
ii
, C. Upcoming!.......................................................................................70
IV – Testing Member States’ Responsibilities under the European Asylum
System: dilemmas..................................................................................70
A. The ‘refugee crisis’ from 2015-2016................................................70
B. Transit zones at the EU’s external borders: the Hungarian example
.............................................................................................................73
C. Will, and how will, the Pact on Migration & Asylum address these
challenges?..........................................................................................74
D. Responding to hybrid threats: weaponisation of migration and
strengthening security at the EU’s external borders...........................75
IV – The machinery behind the Common Asylum System [see related
Lecture]...................................................................................................75
Lecture 5. Irregular migration in the EU.....................................................76
Introduction.............................................................................................76
I - Addressing unauthorized entry, transit, residence and employment. 76
1. Legal framework in relation to facilitating unauthorized entry, transit
and residence......................................................................................76
2. Legal framework in relation to employment of illegally staying TCNs
.............................................................................................................80
II – Return/re-admission..........................................................................81
1. Procedure inside the EU, before return to non-EU State..................81
2. The external dimension of the law on returns (guest lecture).........89
III – Addressing human trafficking [European criminal law]..................103
IV – Key instruments of the 2024 Reform, applying as of June 2026.....103
Lecture 6. The machinery behind EU Migration and Asylum Policy..........105
I. Introduction........................................................................................105
II. Monitoring & Evaluation Mechanisms...............................................105
III. The role of EU agencies: selected examples....................................107
A. The European Border and Coast Guard (Agency)..........................107
B. EASO: towards a European Union Agency for Asylum...................110
IV. The role of Data Bases.....................................................................110
V. The importance of financial support.................................................111
iii
,iv
,Introduction
Migration law is an overall young branch of law which analyses the
developments in legislation and jurisprudence around three important
social questions:
• which migration options are foreseen for aliens to reside on the
territory for a short or long term period, and how is this procedurally
organised?
• Which (residential) protection must countries foresee in the context
of the asylum procedure? Is migration for economic purposes
(employment as an employee or starting an independent activity)
still possible for people coming from outside the European Union?
Which rules apply with regard to family reunification? Can non-
accompanied minor aliens – youngsters arriving without parents or
guardian – acquire a residence status?
• which (legal) instruments are employed in the combat against
undesired migration (migration enforcement)?
• Can the social protection of rejected aliens be reduced and/or
limited, and to which extent can this be done without breaching
fundamental rights? Can, and if so, under which conditions, aliens
without a residence permit be deprived of their freedom with the
view of a forced return? Which role is assigned to criminal law
provisions in the context of migration enforcement?
• which (legal) instruments are employed with the view of furthering
the participation and integration of newcomers and aliens which
already reside (sometimes since a long time) on the territory?
• Do we opt for a flexible acquisition of Belgian nationality or do we
bundle the acquisition of nationality to strict (integration)
conditions? Do we foresee a system of integration, obligatory or
optional? To which extent can integration (and the willingness to
integrate) be bundled with social rights?
Migration law is not linked to a specific competence level. In Belgium,
several competences reside with the federal government (residence
regulation, nationality legislation), while other aspects are governed by the
communities (employment of aliens, integration). Over the last two
decades the European Union has also become an important actor in
migration law.
Course materials
1
, As concerns the lectures of Steven Bouckaert, students can make use of a
textbook (more information will follow during the first lecture) and of
additional information which shall be made available on Toledo.
As concerns the part taught by Elise Muir, reading instructions and
materials shall be made available on Toledo a week before each lecture. In
addition, immediately before each lecture a concise outline of the lecture
will be provided on Toledo.
Examination format
The exam consists of two parts, one part for each lecturer (each
accounting for 10 out of 20 points).
On the one hand, the main exam consists of a two-hour, closed-book
written exam. Therefore, only official documents (legislation and case-
law) are allowed. The written part of the exam will account for 2/3 of
the final grade.
On the other hand, the exam, for both the Belgian and European sections,
is complemented by an oral component that counts for one-third of
the final grade. The oral component takes place on the same day as
the written exam. It lasts 10 minutes per professor. The oral
examination is open book. It consists of an oral presentation and
discussion of a paper that students can write in advance (and must
also submit to the professors a few days before the exam). The paper
must be a maximum of two pages, and its submission is a prerequisite for
participating in the oral examination. This paper – to which the standard
Faculty rules apply - serves as the basis for discussion with the
professor. The professor evaluates the answers given by the
student during the oral examination, and this evaluation corresponds
to one-third of the final grade.
Students attending a migration law moot court may be exempted from the
oral part of the examination, subject to approval by the Professors. The
participation in the moot court will account for 1/3 of the final
grade.
For the part of the examination that relates to the EU dimension, the
course and reading materials are in English. The examination questions
will therefore also be in English. Students are strongly encouraged to
answer in English. Yet, students are allowed to answer in Dutch if they
wish to do so. The examination is intended to test legal skills; it is not a
language test. While answers need to be clearly expressed, structured,
legally sound and well-informed, points will not be deducted for purely
linguistic mistakes. Students are allowed to bring dictionaries. In any case,
the choice of language must overall be consistent.
2
