MEDIA: PUBLIEK EN EFFECTEN
INHOUDSOPGAVE
H1: Algemene inleiding op het publieksdeel .................................................................................................... 6
Algemene cursusinformatie ................................................................................................................................ 6
Eerste tussentijdse opdracht ............................................................................................................................... 6
Algemene inleiding op het publieksdeel: Basisuitgangspunten .......................................................................... 7
1) Mediagebruik is (deels) selectief ......................................................................................................... 7
2) Media worden gebruikt om behoeften te bevredigen........................................................................ 8
Affectgerelateerde behoeften ............................................................................................................................. 9
Meten van affectgerelateerde behoeften ...................................................................................................... 9
Mood management theorie - Zillmann ......................................................................................................... 10
Onderzoeken boredom en smartphone + nieuwe technologieën ................................................................ 11
Later onderzoek ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Ervaring van emoties tijdens de media-consumptie: affective disposition theory ....................................... 14
Informatiegerelateerde behoeften .................................................................................................................... 15
Sociale behoeften .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Behoefte aan identiteit – zelfexpressie? ....................................................................................................... 15
Hervatting basisuitgangspunten ....................................................................................................................... 16
3) Psychologische/sociale factoren: impact op behoeften en mogelijkheden tot invulling ervan ....... 16
Leeftijd en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................................... 17
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: jongeren................................................................................................................... 19
Cognitieve ontwikkeling ................................................................................................................................ 19
Algemene cognitieve evoluties (samenvatting) ............................................................................................ 23
Mediagebruik van kinderen en jongeren .......................................................................................................... 23
Baby’s en peuters (0-2 jaar) .......................................................................................................................... 23
Kinderen van 2 tot 5 jaar (pre-operationeel): ............................................................................................... 24
Kinderen van 5 – 7 jaar (pre-operationeel): .................................................................................................. 24
Kinderen van 7-11 jaar (concreet-operationeel) ........................................................................................... 25
Mediagebruik van kinderen: algemene leeftijdstrends ................................................................................ 26
Mediagebruik van adolescenten ................................................................................................................... 27
Soorten internetrisico’s ................................................................................................................................. 30
Cyberpesten .................................................................................................................................................. 31
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: “emerging adults” ................................................................................................... 33
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: volwassenen ............................................................................................................ 34
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: ouderen ................................................................................................................... 34
Mediagebruik: algemene cijfergegevens ...................................................................................................... 38
Leeftijden in de media ....................................................................................................................................... 38
1
,H2: Sekse/gender en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................ 41
Seks en gender in functie van hersenhelft ......................................................................................................... 41
Biologische verklaring voor mediagebruik .................................................................................................... 42
Definitie v Margaret Mead ............................................................................................................................ 42
Geslacht in westerse wereld ......................................................................................................................... 43
Onderzoeken ................................................................................................................................................. 44
Gendersocialisatie ............................................................................................................................................. 45
Voorstelling van man en vrouw in de media ................................................................................................. 46
Gender: hoe bepaalt dit mediagebruik? ............................................................................................................ 48
Reinforcing spiral model - Slater ................................................................................................................... 48
Media Practice Model – Steele and Brown ................................................................................................... 49
Besluit ................................................................................................................................................................ 54
H3: Sociale klasse & mediagebruik ................................................................................................................. 54
Inleiding ............................................................................................................................................................. 55
Definitie van “klasse” ........................................................................................................................................ 55
Marx: economische onderscheiding ............................................................................................................. 55
Weber: klasse, status en macht vormen basis voor sociale stratificatie....................................................... 55
Rang (cfr. “status” Weber): beroep is beste indicator. Rang wordt geassocieerd met het hebben van een
bepaalde “levensstijl”. .................................................................................................................................. 56
Bourdieu: integreert economisch (klasse) en cultureel (rang) aspect .......................................................... 56
Doctoraatsonderzoek Jeroen Scheerder ....................................................................................................... 58
Klasse en levenstijl............................................................................................................................................. 58
Burgerij of dominante klasse ........................................................................................................................ 58
Arbeiders ....................................................................................................................................................... 58
Kleinburgerij – middenklasse ........................................................................................................................ 58
Klasse en mediagebruik ..................................................................................................................................... 59
Sociale mobiliteit ............................................................................................................................................... 62
Klasse van context ......................................................................................................................................... 63
Thema 4: Gezin en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................... 67
Wat is een gezin (in vergelijking met een huishouden) ? .................................................................................. 67
Private huishoudens ...................................................................................................................................... 68
Definitie van gezin ......................................................................................................................................... 68
Kenmerken van gezin .................................................................................................................................... 69
Kenmerken van gezinnen .............................................................................................................................. 70
Invalshoeken bij onderzoek naar gezinnen en mediagebruik ....................................................................... 70
Ouderschap en deelgedrag op social media: “sharenting” (ook mogelijke bron van “conflict”) .................. 71
Plaats van media in gezinsterritorium en tijdsindeling ..................................................................................... 71
Onderzoeken ................................................................................................................................................. 72
Fysiek of symbolisch onderscheiden ............................................................................................................. 72
Sociale klasse................................................................................................................................................. 73
Invloed van ouders op mediagebruik kinderen ................................................................................................. 73
3 vormen van parental mediation: restrictive, instructive en co-viewing. ................................................... 73
2
, Gezinnen en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................................ 74
Effecten van “mediation” .............................................................................................................................. 74
Invloeden kinderen op ouders ...................................................................................................................... 74
Invloeden van broers en zussen (siblings) op mediagebruik ........................................................................ 74
“Effecten” van media op gezinsleven: twee visies ........................................................................................ 75
Thema 5: Etniciteit en mediagebruik .............................................................................................................. 75
Inleiding ............................................................................................................................................................. 75
Media en etnische groepen: invalshoeken ........................................................................................................ 77
Rol van media in multiculturele samenleving ............................................................................................... 77
Mediawerkers ............................................................................................................................................... 78
Representatie van etnische groepen ............................................................................................................ 79
Mediagebruik ................................................................................................................................................ 80
Zelfpresentatie op sociale media – Tom de Leyn............................................................................................... 84
Etnische identificatie en mediagebruik ............................................................................................................. 85
BELANGRIJK VOOR PAPER ............................................................................................................................. 86
Thema 6: Inleiding effecten ............................................................................................................................ 86
Tweede paper uitleg .......................................................................................................................................... 86
Algemene inleiding media-effectenonderzoek .................................................................................................. 86
Classificatie adhv Criteria: ............................................................................................................................. 87
Verklarende mechanismen ................................................................................................................................ 93
Methoden van media effectenonderzoek ......................................................................................................... 94
Experimenteel onderzoek ............................................................................................................................. 95
Labo experiment ........................................................................................................................................... 95
Veldonderzoek .............................................................................................................................................. 96
Correlationeel onderzoek ............................................................................................................................. 96
Longitudinaal onderzoek ............................................................................................................................... 98
ESM: Experience Sampling Method .............................................................................................................. 99
Meta analyse ............................................................................................................................................... 101
Thema 7: Media en criminaliteit/geweld ..................................................................................................... 101
Inleiding ........................................................................................................................................................... 101
Voorbeeld politie effecten .......................................................................................................................... 101
Voorbeeld van stereotypering criminelen .................................................................................................. 102
Media en criminaliteit ..................................................................................................................................... 102
Geboeid publiek? ........................................................................................................................................ 102
Discussietekst .................................................................................................................................................. 112
Thema 8: media en seksualiteit .................................................................................................................... 113
Seksualiteit in mainstream media ................................................................................................................... 114
Effecten ........................................................................................................................................................... 116
Pornografie ..................................................................................................................................................... 117
Artikel .............................................................................................................................................................. 120
3
, H9: Media en stereotypering ........................................................................................................................ 122
Inleiding ........................................................................................................................................................... 122
Soorten sociale groepen: ............................................................................................................................ 123
Twee benaderingen: ........................................................................................................................................ 123
Sociaal cognitieve benadering .................................................................................................................... 123
Culturele benadering .................................................................................................................................. 123
Integratie van beide perspectieven ............................................................................................................ 124
Stereotype als schema..................................................................................................................................... 125
Schema van een ei ...................................................................................................................................... 126
Schema van twee groepen .......................................................................................................................... 126
Assumpties ivm stereotype ......................................................................................................................... 127
Definitie stereotype ......................................................................................................................................... 128
Functies stereotype ..................................................................................................................................... 128
Stereotypen meten ..................................................................................................................................... 128
Stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen .................................................................................................................... 130
Effecten van (contra)stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen .............................................................................. 130
Thema 10: Media en gezondheid ................................................................................................................. 133
Inleiding: keuze topics ..................................................................................................................................... 133
Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen) .................................................................................................... 133
Prototype-Willingness ............................................................................................................................ 134
alcoholgerelateerde media-inhouden & effecten op (determinanten van) alcoholgebruik ............................ 134
Inhoud alcoholreclame ............................................................................................................................... 134
Effecten alcoholreclame.............................................................................................................................. 134
rookgerelateerde media-inhouden & effecten op (determinanten van) rookgedrag ..................................... 136
Tabaksreclame ............................................................................................................................................ 136
Effecten van tabaksreclame ........................................................................................................................ 136
Roken in film/op TV..................................................................................................................................... 136
“Effecten” van roken in films ...................................................................................................................... 137
mediavoorstellingen van risicovol autorijden & effecten op (determinanten van) rijgedrag ......................... 137
Films of series .............................................................................................................................................. 137
Racing games............................................................................................................................................... 138
media inhouden gerelateerd aan voeding en uiterlijk & effecten op (determinanten) van eetgedrag) ......... 139
Obesitas en anorexia ................................................................................................................................... 139
TV ................................................................................................................................................................ 139
Voorstelling voeding (niet-kookgerelateerde) TV programma’s ................................................................. 141
Media en anorexia ...................................................................................................................................... 141
Media-idealen van vrouw: .......................................................................................................................... 142
Effect op jongens of mannen ...................................................................................................................... 144
fat shaming.................................................................................................................................................. 144
H11: Media en schoolprestaties ................................................................................................................... 145
Televisiekijken en algemene schoolprestaties: theorieën ............................................................................... 146
Gevolgen? ................................................................................................................................................... 146
Resultaten? ................................................................................................................................................. 148
4
INHOUDSOPGAVE
H1: Algemene inleiding op het publieksdeel .................................................................................................... 6
Algemene cursusinformatie ................................................................................................................................ 6
Eerste tussentijdse opdracht ............................................................................................................................... 6
Algemene inleiding op het publieksdeel: Basisuitgangspunten .......................................................................... 7
1) Mediagebruik is (deels) selectief ......................................................................................................... 7
2) Media worden gebruikt om behoeften te bevredigen........................................................................ 8
Affectgerelateerde behoeften ............................................................................................................................. 9
Meten van affectgerelateerde behoeften ...................................................................................................... 9
Mood management theorie - Zillmann ......................................................................................................... 10
Onderzoeken boredom en smartphone + nieuwe technologieën ................................................................ 11
Later onderzoek ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Ervaring van emoties tijdens de media-consumptie: affective disposition theory ....................................... 14
Informatiegerelateerde behoeften .................................................................................................................... 15
Sociale behoeften .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Behoefte aan identiteit – zelfexpressie? ....................................................................................................... 15
Hervatting basisuitgangspunten ....................................................................................................................... 16
3) Psychologische/sociale factoren: impact op behoeften en mogelijkheden tot invulling ervan ....... 16
Leeftijd en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................................... 17
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: jongeren................................................................................................................... 19
Cognitieve ontwikkeling ................................................................................................................................ 19
Algemene cognitieve evoluties (samenvatting) ............................................................................................ 23
Mediagebruik van kinderen en jongeren .......................................................................................................... 23
Baby’s en peuters (0-2 jaar) .......................................................................................................................... 23
Kinderen van 2 tot 5 jaar (pre-operationeel): ............................................................................................... 24
Kinderen van 5 – 7 jaar (pre-operationeel): .................................................................................................. 24
Kinderen van 7-11 jaar (concreet-operationeel) ........................................................................................... 25
Mediagebruik van kinderen: algemene leeftijdstrends ................................................................................ 26
Mediagebruik van adolescenten ................................................................................................................... 27
Soorten internetrisico’s ................................................................................................................................. 30
Cyberpesten .................................................................................................................................................. 31
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: “emerging adults” ................................................................................................... 33
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: volwassenen ............................................................................................................ 34
Leeftijd en mediagebruik: ouderen ................................................................................................................... 34
Mediagebruik: algemene cijfergegevens ...................................................................................................... 38
Leeftijden in de media ....................................................................................................................................... 38
1
,H2: Sekse/gender en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................ 41
Seks en gender in functie van hersenhelft ......................................................................................................... 41
Biologische verklaring voor mediagebruik .................................................................................................... 42
Definitie v Margaret Mead ............................................................................................................................ 42
Geslacht in westerse wereld ......................................................................................................................... 43
Onderzoeken ................................................................................................................................................. 44
Gendersocialisatie ............................................................................................................................................. 45
Voorstelling van man en vrouw in de media ................................................................................................. 46
Gender: hoe bepaalt dit mediagebruik? ............................................................................................................ 48
Reinforcing spiral model - Slater ................................................................................................................... 48
Media Practice Model – Steele and Brown ................................................................................................... 49
Besluit ................................................................................................................................................................ 54
H3: Sociale klasse & mediagebruik ................................................................................................................. 54
Inleiding ............................................................................................................................................................. 55
Definitie van “klasse” ........................................................................................................................................ 55
Marx: economische onderscheiding ............................................................................................................. 55
Weber: klasse, status en macht vormen basis voor sociale stratificatie....................................................... 55
Rang (cfr. “status” Weber): beroep is beste indicator. Rang wordt geassocieerd met het hebben van een
bepaalde “levensstijl”. .................................................................................................................................. 56
Bourdieu: integreert economisch (klasse) en cultureel (rang) aspect .......................................................... 56
Doctoraatsonderzoek Jeroen Scheerder ....................................................................................................... 58
Klasse en levenstijl............................................................................................................................................. 58
Burgerij of dominante klasse ........................................................................................................................ 58
Arbeiders ....................................................................................................................................................... 58
Kleinburgerij – middenklasse ........................................................................................................................ 58
Klasse en mediagebruik ..................................................................................................................................... 59
Sociale mobiliteit ............................................................................................................................................... 62
Klasse van context ......................................................................................................................................... 63
Thema 4: Gezin en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................... 67
Wat is een gezin (in vergelijking met een huishouden) ? .................................................................................. 67
Private huishoudens ...................................................................................................................................... 68
Definitie van gezin ......................................................................................................................................... 68
Kenmerken van gezin .................................................................................................................................... 69
Kenmerken van gezinnen .............................................................................................................................. 70
Invalshoeken bij onderzoek naar gezinnen en mediagebruik ....................................................................... 70
Ouderschap en deelgedrag op social media: “sharenting” (ook mogelijke bron van “conflict”) .................. 71
Plaats van media in gezinsterritorium en tijdsindeling ..................................................................................... 71
Onderzoeken ................................................................................................................................................. 72
Fysiek of symbolisch onderscheiden ............................................................................................................. 72
Sociale klasse................................................................................................................................................. 73
Invloed van ouders op mediagebruik kinderen ................................................................................................. 73
3 vormen van parental mediation: restrictive, instructive en co-viewing. ................................................... 73
2
, Gezinnen en mediagebruik ................................................................................................................................ 74
Effecten van “mediation” .............................................................................................................................. 74
Invloeden kinderen op ouders ...................................................................................................................... 74
Invloeden van broers en zussen (siblings) op mediagebruik ........................................................................ 74
“Effecten” van media op gezinsleven: twee visies ........................................................................................ 75
Thema 5: Etniciteit en mediagebruik .............................................................................................................. 75
Inleiding ............................................................................................................................................................. 75
Media en etnische groepen: invalshoeken ........................................................................................................ 77
Rol van media in multiculturele samenleving ............................................................................................... 77
Mediawerkers ............................................................................................................................................... 78
Representatie van etnische groepen ............................................................................................................ 79
Mediagebruik ................................................................................................................................................ 80
Zelfpresentatie op sociale media – Tom de Leyn............................................................................................... 84
Etnische identificatie en mediagebruik ............................................................................................................. 85
BELANGRIJK VOOR PAPER ............................................................................................................................. 86
Thema 6: Inleiding effecten ............................................................................................................................ 86
Tweede paper uitleg .......................................................................................................................................... 86
Algemene inleiding media-effectenonderzoek .................................................................................................. 86
Classificatie adhv Criteria: ............................................................................................................................. 87
Verklarende mechanismen ................................................................................................................................ 93
Methoden van media effectenonderzoek ......................................................................................................... 94
Experimenteel onderzoek ............................................................................................................................. 95
Labo experiment ........................................................................................................................................... 95
Veldonderzoek .............................................................................................................................................. 96
Correlationeel onderzoek ............................................................................................................................. 96
Longitudinaal onderzoek ............................................................................................................................... 98
ESM: Experience Sampling Method .............................................................................................................. 99
Meta analyse ............................................................................................................................................... 101
Thema 7: Media en criminaliteit/geweld ..................................................................................................... 101
Inleiding ........................................................................................................................................................... 101
Voorbeeld politie effecten .......................................................................................................................... 101
Voorbeeld van stereotypering criminelen .................................................................................................. 102
Media en criminaliteit ..................................................................................................................................... 102
Geboeid publiek? ........................................................................................................................................ 102
Discussietekst .................................................................................................................................................. 112
Thema 8: media en seksualiteit .................................................................................................................... 113
Seksualiteit in mainstream media ................................................................................................................... 114
Effecten ........................................................................................................................................................... 116
Pornografie ..................................................................................................................................................... 117
Artikel .............................................................................................................................................................. 120
3
, H9: Media en stereotypering ........................................................................................................................ 122
Inleiding ........................................................................................................................................................... 122
Soorten sociale groepen: ............................................................................................................................ 123
Twee benaderingen: ........................................................................................................................................ 123
Sociaal cognitieve benadering .................................................................................................................... 123
Culturele benadering .................................................................................................................................. 123
Integratie van beide perspectieven ............................................................................................................ 124
Stereotype als schema..................................................................................................................................... 125
Schema van een ei ...................................................................................................................................... 126
Schema van twee groepen .......................................................................................................................... 126
Assumpties ivm stereotype ......................................................................................................................... 127
Definitie stereotype ......................................................................................................................................... 128
Functies stereotype ..................................................................................................................................... 128
Stereotypen meten ..................................................................................................................................... 128
Stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen .................................................................................................................... 130
Effecten van (contra)stereotiepe mediavoorstellingen .............................................................................. 130
Thema 10: Media en gezondheid ................................................................................................................. 133
Inleiding: keuze topics ..................................................................................................................................... 133
Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen) .................................................................................................... 133
Prototype-Willingness ............................................................................................................................ 134
alcoholgerelateerde media-inhouden & effecten op (determinanten van) alcoholgebruik ............................ 134
Inhoud alcoholreclame ............................................................................................................................... 134
Effecten alcoholreclame.............................................................................................................................. 134
rookgerelateerde media-inhouden & effecten op (determinanten van) rookgedrag ..................................... 136
Tabaksreclame ............................................................................................................................................ 136
Effecten van tabaksreclame ........................................................................................................................ 136
Roken in film/op TV..................................................................................................................................... 136
“Effecten” van roken in films ...................................................................................................................... 137
mediavoorstellingen van risicovol autorijden & effecten op (determinanten van) rijgedrag ......................... 137
Films of series .............................................................................................................................................. 137
Racing games............................................................................................................................................... 138
media inhouden gerelateerd aan voeding en uiterlijk & effecten op (determinanten) van eetgedrag) ......... 139
Obesitas en anorexia ................................................................................................................................... 139
TV ................................................................................................................................................................ 139
Voorstelling voeding (niet-kookgerelateerde) TV programma’s ................................................................. 141
Media en anorexia ...................................................................................................................................... 141
Media-idealen van vrouw: .......................................................................................................................... 142
Effect op jongens of mannen ...................................................................................................................... 144
fat shaming.................................................................................................................................................. 144
H11: Media en schoolprestaties ................................................................................................................... 145
Televisiekijken en algemene schoolprestaties: theorieën ............................................................................... 146
Gevolgen? ................................................................................................................................................... 146
Resultaten? ................................................................................................................................................. 148
4
