lecture 1
1. What is theory?
Theory can mean:
● explanation of a phenomenon
● logically connected set of ideas
● conceptual system organizing reality
Theory helps explain and structure the social world.
Theory is:
● abstract → generalizes from cases
● socially and historically situated
Theories shape how researchers observe and interpret reality.
Merton on theory
Robert Merton:
“theory” is used for many different things, from small hypotheses to large systems of thought.
Because of this, the concept can become vague.
Theory and empirical reality
Scientific theories contain:
● empirical observations
● presuppositions and assumptions
Theories are connected to social reality, but also shape how reality is studied.
2. Why is theory important?
Theory important for:
● heuristics
● framing
● explanation
● systematisation
,3. Heuristics
Theory provides:
● concepts
● analytic frames
● ways of seeing reality
Theory helps determine:
● what is relevant
● what is irrelevant
Without theoretical concepts, observation becomes difficult.
4. Framing
Researchers use theoretical perspectives to classify and interpret phenomena.
Different frames produce different understandings.
Example: riots
Riots can be understood as:
Crisis behaviour
● frustration
● deprivation
● reaction to social change
Rational action
● strategic violence used to achieve goals
Culture of violence
● learned violent norms and values
Each perspective:
● focuses on different causes
● uses different concepts
● requires different research methods
Research requires systematic reflection on available theoretical frames.
,5. Explanation
Theory helps explain why social phenomena happen.
Researchers test different hypotheses.
Example: non-take-up of social benefits
Possible explanations:
● lack of information
● no need for benefits
● fear of stigma
● expectation of finding work soon
● administrative complexity
Each hypothesis produces testable implications.
Hypotheses can be rejected if observations contradict them.
6. Systematisation
Theory organizes empirical knowledge.
Theory acts as:
● lens
● perspective
● framework for categorizing reality
Example:
responses to discrimination.
Lamont et al. identify strategies such as:
● confrontation
● adaptation/self-management
● silence
● strong work ethic
● isolation/autonomy
7. How are theories produced?
Induction
- Induction: generalizing from observations
- Problem of induction: many observations can never fully prove a universal truth.
- Example → many white swans do not prove all swans are white.
Theory and assumptions
, Theories are not only based on empirical data.
They are also shaped by:
● assumptions
● expectations
● prior ideas
Theory develops through interaction between:
● empirical reality
● non-empirical ideas
8. Theoretical pluralism
Sociology contains many different theories because theories rely on different assumptions.
Epistemological debates
Questions about knowledge:
● how can reliable knowledge be produced?
● which methods are valid?
● what counts as scientific knowledge?
Ontological debates
Questions about reality:
● what is social reality made of?
● individuals or structures?
● objective reality or constructed meanings?
9. Core sociological questions
Human action
Different theories explain action differently.
Rational action
● self-interest
● utility maximization
Normative action
1. What is theory?
Theory can mean:
● explanation of a phenomenon
● logically connected set of ideas
● conceptual system organizing reality
Theory helps explain and structure the social world.
Theory is:
● abstract → generalizes from cases
● socially and historically situated
Theories shape how researchers observe and interpret reality.
Merton on theory
Robert Merton:
“theory” is used for many different things, from small hypotheses to large systems of thought.
Because of this, the concept can become vague.
Theory and empirical reality
Scientific theories contain:
● empirical observations
● presuppositions and assumptions
Theories are connected to social reality, but also shape how reality is studied.
2. Why is theory important?
Theory important for:
● heuristics
● framing
● explanation
● systematisation
,3. Heuristics
Theory provides:
● concepts
● analytic frames
● ways of seeing reality
Theory helps determine:
● what is relevant
● what is irrelevant
Without theoretical concepts, observation becomes difficult.
4. Framing
Researchers use theoretical perspectives to classify and interpret phenomena.
Different frames produce different understandings.
Example: riots
Riots can be understood as:
Crisis behaviour
● frustration
● deprivation
● reaction to social change
Rational action
● strategic violence used to achieve goals
Culture of violence
● learned violent norms and values
Each perspective:
● focuses on different causes
● uses different concepts
● requires different research methods
Research requires systematic reflection on available theoretical frames.
,5. Explanation
Theory helps explain why social phenomena happen.
Researchers test different hypotheses.
Example: non-take-up of social benefits
Possible explanations:
● lack of information
● no need for benefits
● fear of stigma
● expectation of finding work soon
● administrative complexity
Each hypothesis produces testable implications.
Hypotheses can be rejected if observations contradict them.
6. Systematisation
Theory organizes empirical knowledge.
Theory acts as:
● lens
● perspective
● framework for categorizing reality
Example:
responses to discrimination.
Lamont et al. identify strategies such as:
● confrontation
● adaptation/self-management
● silence
● strong work ethic
● isolation/autonomy
7. How are theories produced?
Induction
- Induction: generalizing from observations
- Problem of induction: many observations can never fully prove a universal truth.
- Example → many white swans do not prove all swans are white.
Theory and assumptions
, Theories are not only based on empirical data.
They are also shaped by:
● assumptions
● expectations
● prior ideas
Theory develops through interaction between:
● empirical reality
● non-empirical ideas
8. Theoretical pluralism
Sociology contains many different theories because theories rely on different assumptions.
Epistemological debates
Questions about knowledge:
● how can reliable knowledge be produced?
● which methods are valid?
● what counts as scientific knowledge?
Ontological debates
Questions about reality:
● what is social reality made of?
● individuals or structures?
● objective reality or constructed meanings?
9. Core sociological questions
Human action
Different theories explain action differently.
Rational action
● self-interest
● utility maximization
Normative action
