1
⚠️
Crisis and Security Management Msc - Governing
Threats: Risk, Vulnerability and Crisis Preparedness.
+ Mandatory Reading Summaries.
+ Practice Quiz Questions.
+ Example of Policy Brief.
Week 1 - 7 of Gov_Threats, given at Leiden University.
, 2
Workgroup 1
Burkholder, G. J., Cox, K. A., Crawford, L. M., & Hitchcock, J. H. (Eds.). (2019).
Chapter 11: Survey research. In Research design and methods: An applied guide for
the scholar-practitioner. Sage.
Introduction
- Survey research is a descriptive, nonexperimental method used to collect information through
interviews and/or questionnaires.
- Popular methodology in the social, behavioral, management, and education sciences.
- Survey research generally serves 1 or more of 3 main purposes:
1. Exploration: Used to examine a topic that has not been previously studied.
2. Explanation: Used to explain the relationship between two or more variables of
interest.
3. Description: Used to describe the characteristics or attributes of a population.
The 3 main types of info commonly collected with surveys are descriptive (eg respondent characteristics
like age or education), attitudinal (respondents' perceptions or feelings toward objects, events, or people),
and behavioral (information about how often one engages in a particular action or activity).
Instruments
A survey instrument is the tool used to gather data. There are 2 general types:
1. Verbal surveys (interviews): Administered in person, over the telephone, or the internet
a. Advantages: generally yields quality responses and high response rates because the
interviewer is present for clarification.
b. Disadvantages: can be costly, require more time, and poses risks for interviewer bias or
coercion, potentially less privacy.
2. Questionnaires: contain items respondents read and answer themselves. Eg mail, in-person
group/individual administered, and self-administered web-based questionnaires.
a. Advantages: typically inexpensive and quick for reaching a large sample, more privacy
(if anonymous) = encourage truthful answers to sensitive questions. Web-based
questionnaires can be faster and eliminate manual data entry if data is exported directly.
b. Disadvantages: generally yield lower response rates than interviews and must be easily
understood because researcher isnt present for clarification. Web-based surveys have
unique ethical and security concerns, and participation is limited to those with internet
access and technical competence.
Benefits and limitations
- Benefit
- Ability to gather information directly from people about things that cannot be directly
observed, like attitudes, and to collect information from geographically dispersed
samples.
- Limitations
- surveys typically supply estimates of the population rather than exact measurements,
requiring caution when generalizing findings.
, 3
- Low response rates can limit ability to generalize findings and may introduce doubt about
the validity of results.
- surveys are susceptible to bias due to their self-report nature; respondents may
misinterpret items, have difficulty recalling information, or intentionally/unintentionally
misreport information (aka social desirability bias).
Designing a Survey Instrument
- Before designing a new instrument, researchers should conduct a lit review to determine if a
reliable and valid instrument already exists. If necessary, permission must be taken from the
publisher/ author to use or modify an existing instrument. Modifications may raise potential
issues concerning the instrument’s reliability and validity.
- If a new instrument is required, the design process includes determining the factors associated
with the construct of interest, selecting a method of administration, choosing a sampling plan
(probability or nonprobability), writing questions and response scales, and pilot testing.
Writing questions & statements
- Good surveys are free of biased language, easy to understand, and presented one at a time.
Questions are either open or closed ended.
- Common errors to avoid include: ambiguity, biased wording, leading questions, double-barreled
questions (asking for responses to two or more things in one item), and complicated skip patterns.
Researchers should also consider response bias, such as social desirability (the tendency to
respond positively) or the tendency to only provide extreme answers on a scale.
Rating scales
Two main types:
1. Likert scale: Presents a range of adjective options along a continuum, such as "strongly disagree"
to "strongly agree".
2. Semantic differential scale: Presents response items with bipolar adjectives (eg Good _________
Bad).
Pilot Testing, Reliability and validity
- Pilot testing: final design step, involving administering the instrument to a sample from the target
population to gain preliminary information about its performance under realistic conditions and to
inform potential revisions.
- Reliability: the consistency of responses over time. This can be assessed using a test–retest
reliability (scores from repeated administration) or split-half reliability (correlating one half of the
items with the other half). Cronbach’s alpha assesses internal consistency among items.
- Validity: degree to which an instrument measures what it was designed to measure. Types
include:
, 4
- face validity (whether it appears to measure the construct), construct validity
(measurement relative to a theory), and criterion validity (how well it correlates with
another established instrument measuring a similar construct)
Bartolucci, A., & Magni, M. (2016). Influence rather than control: A new approach for
disaster education in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. International Journal of
Disaster Risk Reduction, 19, 112-117.
Introduction
● The aftermath of a disaster is among the most challenging phases for disaster managers.
○ Mostly because managers have less control over the situation and there is no
immediate assistance from emergency services (e.g., due to disruptions,
communication difficulties, or traffic).
● Survivors rely on themself → most of them can walk and are lightly wounded, their
behaviour is based on emotions and reason.
○ They are frightened, but do not act impulsively or selfishly.
○ They do not fly unless there are specific circumstances.
○ They are not passive
○ They do not become irrational → they even are better under stress than normally.
■ Still, the actions can have negative and positive consequences
● Negative → A lot of people were brought to the hospital at once
● Positive → Knowing what to do during a disaster
● Preparedness and education of victims play a pivotal role.
● Little literature deals with this.
○ Most civil protective organisations and governmental institutions have their own
educational strategies for behaviour during a disaster.
● Most of the programmes are inflexible, case-specific and based on a worst-case scenario,
spelling out what citizens should do.
○ This reflects the tendency of disaster managers to control survivors and push them
to react according to plans rather than understand their actual behaviour.
○ On the contrary, planning and education should take into account how people are
likely to act, rather than trying to change them.
● This paper is based on the assumption that it is impossible to control the behaviour of
survivors, so it suggests a decision chart that could be used to adapt and deal with any
kind of situation:
○ Aims to create a tool that helps people adjust to the new situation → influencing
the survivor's decision-making process
○ Create reactions that do not affect disaster response activities but improve them.
, 5
■ Using them as a resource.
● Hypothesis → A more flexible, adaptable approach improves the effectiveness.
○ Solidarity and mutual hep may be used
● Last goal of the paper: provide a research-based flow chart to improve existing
educational programs.
Materials and methods:
● Two methods are tested: action vs. decision flowchart.
● Study area → Arcevia, Italy
○ Earthquakes happen
○ Representative for Italian demography
● Sampling methodology
○ Everyone over 18 had the same chance of being included. Randomness was used
to select people, and groups were formed based on demographic data beforehand.
Two conditions needed to be met:
■ a) not having been involved in major earthquakes
■ b) not having relatives or friends involved in major earthquakes.
● Questionnaire
○ Goal → quantitatively investigate whether and how the selected educational
approaches influence the tendency to react in the immediate aftermath of a
disaster.
○ First, demographic profiles, then 16 statements presenting behavioural responses
to situations that may happen in the immediate aftermath of a disaster.
■ All based on interviews from real victims.
○ Participants answered with a Likert scale to indicate if they were likely to react
that way.
■ Statements were categorised as effective and counterproductive according
to the reviewed literature.
● Procedure
○ Took place during a public meeting in an elementary school, set up by the
authorities.
○ A scenario was presented to the participants as if they were in a disaster.
○ There was a controlgroup
○ There were 4 phases (see fig)
⚠️
Crisis and Security Management Msc - Governing
Threats: Risk, Vulnerability and Crisis Preparedness.
+ Mandatory Reading Summaries.
+ Practice Quiz Questions.
+ Example of Policy Brief.
Week 1 - 7 of Gov_Threats, given at Leiden University.
, 2
Workgroup 1
Burkholder, G. J., Cox, K. A., Crawford, L. M., & Hitchcock, J. H. (Eds.). (2019).
Chapter 11: Survey research. In Research design and methods: An applied guide for
the scholar-practitioner. Sage.
Introduction
- Survey research is a descriptive, nonexperimental method used to collect information through
interviews and/or questionnaires.
- Popular methodology in the social, behavioral, management, and education sciences.
- Survey research generally serves 1 or more of 3 main purposes:
1. Exploration: Used to examine a topic that has not been previously studied.
2. Explanation: Used to explain the relationship between two or more variables of
interest.
3. Description: Used to describe the characteristics or attributes of a population.
The 3 main types of info commonly collected with surveys are descriptive (eg respondent characteristics
like age or education), attitudinal (respondents' perceptions or feelings toward objects, events, or people),
and behavioral (information about how often one engages in a particular action or activity).
Instruments
A survey instrument is the tool used to gather data. There are 2 general types:
1. Verbal surveys (interviews): Administered in person, over the telephone, or the internet
a. Advantages: generally yields quality responses and high response rates because the
interviewer is present for clarification.
b. Disadvantages: can be costly, require more time, and poses risks for interviewer bias or
coercion, potentially less privacy.
2. Questionnaires: contain items respondents read and answer themselves. Eg mail, in-person
group/individual administered, and self-administered web-based questionnaires.
a. Advantages: typically inexpensive and quick for reaching a large sample, more privacy
(if anonymous) = encourage truthful answers to sensitive questions. Web-based
questionnaires can be faster and eliminate manual data entry if data is exported directly.
b. Disadvantages: generally yield lower response rates than interviews and must be easily
understood because researcher isnt present for clarification. Web-based surveys have
unique ethical and security concerns, and participation is limited to those with internet
access and technical competence.
Benefits and limitations
- Benefit
- Ability to gather information directly from people about things that cannot be directly
observed, like attitudes, and to collect information from geographically dispersed
samples.
- Limitations
- surveys typically supply estimates of the population rather than exact measurements,
requiring caution when generalizing findings.
, 3
- Low response rates can limit ability to generalize findings and may introduce doubt about
the validity of results.
- surveys are susceptible to bias due to their self-report nature; respondents may
misinterpret items, have difficulty recalling information, or intentionally/unintentionally
misreport information (aka social desirability bias).
Designing a Survey Instrument
- Before designing a new instrument, researchers should conduct a lit review to determine if a
reliable and valid instrument already exists. If necessary, permission must be taken from the
publisher/ author to use or modify an existing instrument. Modifications may raise potential
issues concerning the instrument’s reliability and validity.
- If a new instrument is required, the design process includes determining the factors associated
with the construct of interest, selecting a method of administration, choosing a sampling plan
(probability or nonprobability), writing questions and response scales, and pilot testing.
Writing questions & statements
- Good surveys are free of biased language, easy to understand, and presented one at a time.
Questions are either open or closed ended.
- Common errors to avoid include: ambiguity, biased wording, leading questions, double-barreled
questions (asking for responses to two or more things in one item), and complicated skip patterns.
Researchers should also consider response bias, such as social desirability (the tendency to
respond positively) or the tendency to only provide extreme answers on a scale.
Rating scales
Two main types:
1. Likert scale: Presents a range of adjective options along a continuum, such as "strongly disagree"
to "strongly agree".
2. Semantic differential scale: Presents response items with bipolar adjectives (eg Good _________
Bad).
Pilot Testing, Reliability and validity
- Pilot testing: final design step, involving administering the instrument to a sample from the target
population to gain preliminary information about its performance under realistic conditions and to
inform potential revisions.
- Reliability: the consistency of responses over time. This can be assessed using a test–retest
reliability (scores from repeated administration) or split-half reliability (correlating one half of the
items with the other half). Cronbach’s alpha assesses internal consistency among items.
- Validity: degree to which an instrument measures what it was designed to measure. Types
include:
, 4
- face validity (whether it appears to measure the construct), construct validity
(measurement relative to a theory), and criterion validity (how well it correlates with
another established instrument measuring a similar construct)
Bartolucci, A., & Magni, M. (2016). Influence rather than control: A new approach for
disaster education in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. International Journal of
Disaster Risk Reduction, 19, 112-117.
Introduction
● The aftermath of a disaster is among the most challenging phases for disaster managers.
○ Mostly because managers have less control over the situation and there is no
immediate assistance from emergency services (e.g., due to disruptions,
communication difficulties, or traffic).
● Survivors rely on themself → most of them can walk and are lightly wounded, their
behaviour is based on emotions and reason.
○ They are frightened, but do not act impulsively or selfishly.
○ They do not fly unless there are specific circumstances.
○ They are not passive
○ They do not become irrational → they even are better under stress than normally.
■ Still, the actions can have negative and positive consequences
● Negative → A lot of people were brought to the hospital at once
● Positive → Knowing what to do during a disaster
● Preparedness and education of victims play a pivotal role.
● Little literature deals with this.
○ Most civil protective organisations and governmental institutions have their own
educational strategies for behaviour during a disaster.
● Most of the programmes are inflexible, case-specific and based on a worst-case scenario,
spelling out what citizens should do.
○ This reflects the tendency of disaster managers to control survivors and push them
to react according to plans rather than understand their actual behaviour.
○ On the contrary, planning and education should take into account how people are
likely to act, rather than trying to change them.
● This paper is based on the assumption that it is impossible to control the behaviour of
survivors, so it suggests a decision chart that could be used to adapt and deal with any
kind of situation:
○ Aims to create a tool that helps people adjust to the new situation → influencing
the survivor's decision-making process
○ Create reactions that do not affect disaster response activities but improve them.
, 5
■ Using them as a resource.
● Hypothesis → A more flexible, adaptable approach improves the effectiveness.
○ Solidarity and mutual hep may be used
● Last goal of the paper: provide a research-based flow chart to improve existing
educational programs.
Materials and methods:
● Two methods are tested: action vs. decision flowchart.
● Study area → Arcevia, Italy
○ Earthquakes happen
○ Representative for Italian demography
● Sampling methodology
○ Everyone over 18 had the same chance of being included. Randomness was used
to select people, and groups were formed based on demographic data beforehand.
Two conditions needed to be met:
■ a) not having been involved in major earthquakes
■ b) not having relatives or friends involved in major earthquakes.
● Questionnaire
○ Goal → quantitatively investigate whether and how the selected educational
approaches influence the tendency to react in the immediate aftermath of a
disaster.
○ First, demographic profiles, then 16 statements presenting behavioural responses
to situations that may happen in the immediate aftermath of a disaster.
■ All based on interviews from real victims.
○ Participants answered with a Likert scale to indicate if they were likely to react
that way.
■ Statements were categorised as effective and counterproductive according
to the reviewed literature.
● Procedure
○ Took place during a public meeting in an elementary school, set up by the
authorities.
○ A scenario was presented to the participants as if they were in a disaster.
○ There was a controlgroup
○ There were 4 phases (see fig)
