MALAK HANI
,These notes are for the 2026 syllabus and are full.
According to the syllabus and book and other sources
1-STATES OF MATTER
2-ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
3-STOICHIOMETRY
4-ELECTROPLATING
5-CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
6-
7-
8-
9-
10-
11-
12-
MALAK HANI
, STATES OF MATTER
All ma er is made up of ny par cles (atoms, molecules, or ions).These par cles are in constant mo on,
and their movement depends on the state of ma er (solid, liquid, or gas).
The par cles have energy—the energy is highest in gases and lowest in solids.
The par cles are separated by spaces, which are smallest in solids, larger in liquids, and largest in gases.
The par cles collide with each other and with the walls of their container. These collisions are elas c,
meaning no energy is lost.
Proper es Solids Liquids Gases
Arrangement Regular Irregular Irregular
A rac on Strongly a racted weak Very weak
force
Volume Fixed Fixed Changes
Compressibility No A bit Yes
Shape Definite Takes shape of Takes shape of container
container
Par cle Closely packed Loosely packed Widely separated
separa on
Mo on Vibrate in fixed posi on Slide over each other Free, Fast, and Random
Substances in solids and liquids expand when heat
is applied due to par cles moving faster and slightly
further apart the par cles DO NOT GET BIGGER
Liquids and gases are fluids
Mass never changes when changing states
MALAK HANI
, From solid to liquid MELTING opposite is FREEZING
When solid is heated temperature rises par cles absorb energy and vibrate more violently
When they become more energe c, they are freed from their fixed posi on and change into liquids
Mel ng point: the temperature at which the solid melts (when liquid freezes)
From liquid to gas BOILING
When a liquid is heated par cles gain more energy to move faster
When boiling point is reached, the par cles move faster and more randomly, spread out the a rac on force
between the par cles becomes very weak
CONDENSATION
When gas changes to liquid the par cles move slower get closer un l they touch and forces of a rac on
becomes stronger
SUBLIMATION
Change from solid to gas directly
E.g. solid carbon dioxide
What is the difference between boiling and evapora on?
Boiling happens at a specific temp and throughout the whole liquid while evapora on happens over a
range of temp and at the surface of the liquid.
Why is changing states physical
As no substance is produced, these changes are reversable
Explain in terms of a rac ve forces, why there is no increase in temp during boiling or mel ng
Energy is used to break bonds between the molecule
Describe the mo on of par cles as temp inc
Vibra ons increase
MALAK HANI
,These notes are for the 2026 syllabus and are full.
According to the syllabus and book and other sources
1-STATES OF MATTER
2-ATOMS, ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS
3-STOICHIOMETRY
4-ELECTROPLATING
5-CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
6-
7-
8-
9-
10-
11-
12-
MALAK HANI
, STATES OF MATTER
All ma er is made up of ny par cles (atoms, molecules, or ions).These par cles are in constant mo on,
and their movement depends on the state of ma er (solid, liquid, or gas).
The par cles have energy—the energy is highest in gases and lowest in solids.
The par cles are separated by spaces, which are smallest in solids, larger in liquids, and largest in gases.
The par cles collide with each other and with the walls of their container. These collisions are elas c,
meaning no energy is lost.
Proper es Solids Liquids Gases
Arrangement Regular Irregular Irregular
A rac on Strongly a racted weak Very weak
force
Volume Fixed Fixed Changes
Compressibility No A bit Yes
Shape Definite Takes shape of Takes shape of container
container
Par cle Closely packed Loosely packed Widely separated
separa on
Mo on Vibrate in fixed posi on Slide over each other Free, Fast, and Random
Substances in solids and liquids expand when heat
is applied due to par cles moving faster and slightly
further apart the par cles DO NOT GET BIGGER
Liquids and gases are fluids
Mass never changes when changing states
MALAK HANI
, From solid to liquid MELTING opposite is FREEZING
When solid is heated temperature rises par cles absorb energy and vibrate more violently
When they become more energe c, they are freed from their fixed posi on and change into liquids
Mel ng point: the temperature at which the solid melts (when liquid freezes)
From liquid to gas BOILING
When a liquid is heated par cles gain more energy to move faster
When boiling point is reached, the par cles move faster and more randomly, spread out the a rac on force
between the par cles becomes very weak
CONDENSATION
When gas changes to liquid the par cles move slower get closer un l they touch and forces of a rac on
becomes stronger
SUBLIMATION
Change from solid to gas directly
E.g. solid carbon dioxide
What is the difference between boiling and evapora on?
Boiling happens at a specific temp and throughout the whole liquid while evapora on happens over a
range of temp and at the surface of the liquid.
Why is changing states physical
As no substance is produced, these changes are reversable
Explain in terms of a rac ve forces, why there is no increase in temp during boiling or mel ng
Energy is used to break bonds between the molecule
Describe the mo on of par cles as temp inc
Vibra ons increase
MALAK HANI
