Human Growth and Development CLEP
nature vs. nurture controversy -
☑️ it is agreed that both have some influence in development, but some people think it is
more one than the other.
biologically built vs. environment
tabula rasa -
☑️ this is what the human mind is at birth (according to the nurture side of the nature versus
nurture controversy), like a blank slate that experience writes on
Discontinuity or Stage Theories -
☑️ Argues that development progresses through a series of stages. Each stage involves a
specific task. Once the stage is completed the child moves on to the next stage. The developing
person is changing qualitatively, not quantitatively.
Continuity Theories -
☑️ Suggest that development is best described as a steady growth process. Developmental
change is described as occurring in small steps or increments. (Skills and behavior improve but
they do not change in a qualitatively.)
Child Development vs. Life Span -
☑️ Some theories of development argue that development is complete at the end of
childhood/adolescence (Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget are examples).
Life Span theories of development argue that growth and change continue to occur throughout the
entire life span (Erick Erickson took a life span perspective).
universality vs. context specific -
☑️ a theory that applies to all cultures and time periods (such as Piaget proposed for his
theory)
Bronfenbrenner is an example of the alternative view which points out that there are differences in
development depending on the culture/environment (such as in collectivist cultures versus
individualistic cultures)
Collectivist cultures -
☑️ Places greater value on the common good than individual achievement
Individualistic cultures -
☑️ values individual achievements and the pursuit of individual goals
accommodation -
☑️ by Piaget. modifying an existing scheme
assimilation -
☑️ by Piaget. taking new information from the world and incorporating it into an existing
scheme
Scheme -
☑️ by Piaget. basic thought about the world, objects, events
,disequilibrium -
☑️ what happens when a child understands the world in a particular way (their scheme) then
sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding.
constructivism -
☑️ Piaget's position that argues that children construct schema (organized patterns of thought
or action) based on experiences they have actively exploring the environment.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development -
☑️ sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations (each stage
represents a qualitatively different way of thinking instead of just acquiring more information over
time)
sensorimotor stage -
☑️ 0-2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end of this stage
(understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed) & knows
what they can do with their senses.
By the end of this stage they also have symbolic representation (when one thing stands for another
thing) and deferred imitation (imitating a model's behavior awhile after it was observed). Piaget.
preoperational stage -
☑️ 2-7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language),
are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives),
use transductive reasoning (not reasoning logically about cause and effect),
use animitic thinking (projecting human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects),
and think semilogically. Piaget.
concrete operations -
☑️ 7-11 years old. Can understand transformation (an object changing form is still the same
object),
reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start),
conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance
changes),
can group things into categories,
and think logically as long as it is not abstract. Piaget.
Formal operations -
☑️ 12+ years old. They can handle hypotheticals/abstract and scientific reasoning, logical
and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor). Although he thought not all people reach this
stage of cognitive development, the end goal is hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Piaget.
information processing approach -
☑️ a relatively new approach that uses the computer as a metaphor for the human mind (they
use the two-store model of memory)
learning theory or the behaviorist perspective -
☑️ describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs.
nurture & are continuity theories). Learning is a change in observable behavior (and behavior is
controlled by stimuli in the environment).
(key people: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura)
, John Watson -
☑️ founded the Behavioral Psychology in 1913. (he believed that at birth we only have these
emotions: love, anger, and fear)
learning theory/the behaviorist perspective = describes developmental change as a product of
learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories).
Pavlov's classical conditioning -
☑️ (sometimes called type S (stimulus) conditioning)
Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR (together producing a
reflex) which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus.
{First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned
Second letter = stimulus/response}
Before conditioning: US -> UR
Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US -> UR
After learning: CS -> CR (unless the original S is taken away, which would lead to extinction aka
going back to the original behavior)
higher conditioning = when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a CS
Stimulus generalization -
☑️ When something from conditioning (or uncondtioned) carries over to another related
area. You are afraid of spiders, you might become afraid of other bugs because they are so similar.
stimulus discrimination -
☑️ only showing the reflexive classical conditioning (or UC) response for the specific/exact
stimulus (not similar ones like generalization)
Watson and Little Albert -
☑️ The psychologist classically conditioned the infant to be afraid of a white rat, by pairing
the white rat (a neutral stimuli) with a frightening, loud noise, causing the infant to associate the
rat with the noise.
type R (response) or operant conditioning -
☑️ by Skinner.
-Reinforcement is to increase (+) the behavior.
-Punishment is to decrease (-) the behavior.
-Positive is introducing something.
-Negative is taking away something.
Shaping -
☑️ A form of behavioral modification for getting a subject to start performing a preferable
behavior by reinforcing components of the desired behavior and gradually rewarding more
discriminatively (similar actions are reinforced in a way that leads them to the desired goal).
social learning theory/social cognitive theory -
☑️ by Bandura.
nature vs. nurture controversy -
☑️ it is agreed that both have some influence in development, but some people think it is
more one than the other.
biologically built vs. environment
tabula rasa -
☑️ this is what the human mind is at birth (according to the nurture side of the nature versus
nurture controversy), like a blank slate that experience writes on
Discontinuity or Stage Theories -
☑️ Argues that development progresses through a series of stages. Each stage involves a
specific task. Once the stage is completed the child moves on to the next stage. The developing
person is changing qualitatively, not quantitatively.
Continuity Theories -
☑️ Suggest that development is best described as a steady growth process. Developmental
change is described as occurring in small steps or increments. (Skills and behavior improve but
they do not change in a qualitatively.)
Child Development vs. Life Span -
☑️ Some theories of development argue that development is complete at the end of
childhood/adolescence (Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget are examples).
Life Span theories of development argue that growth and change continue to occur throughout the
entire life span (Erick Erickson took a life span perspective).
universality vs. context specific -
☑️ a theory that applies to all cultures and time periods (such as Piaget proposed for his
theory)
Bronfenbrenner is an example of the alternative view which points out that there are differences in
development depending on the culture/environment (such as in collectivist cultures versus
individualistic cultures)
Collectivist cultures -
☑️ Places greater value on the common good than individual achievement
Individualistic cultures -
☑️ values individual achievements and the pursuit of individual goals
accommodation -
☑️ by Piaget. modifying an existing scheme
assimilation -
☑️ by Piaget. taking new information from the world and incorporating it into an existing
scheme
Scheme -
☑️ by Piaget. basic thought about the world, objects, events
,disequilibrium -
☑️ what happens when a child understands the world in a particular way (their scheme) then
sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding.
constructivism -
☑️ Piaget's position that argues that children construct schema (organized patterns of thought
or action) based on experiences they have actively exploring the environment.
Piaget's stages of cognitive development -
☑️ sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations (each stage
represents a qualitatively different way of thinking instead of just acquiring more information over
time)
sensorimotor stage -
☑️ 0-2 years old. Lacks concept of object permanence until the end of this stage
(understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed) & knows
what they can do with their senses.
By the end of this stage they also have symbolic representation (when one thing stands for another
thing) and deferred imitation (imitating a model's behavior awhile after it was observed). Piaget.
preoperational stage -
☑️ 2-7 years old. They think symbolically (e.g. language),
are egocentric (have trouble seeing things from others' perspectives),
use transductive reasoning (not reasoning logically about cause and effect),
use animitic thinking (projecting human abilities and traits onto inanimate objects),
and think semilogically. Piaget.
concrete operations -
☑️ 7-11 years old. Can understand transformation (an object changing form is still the same
object),
reversibility (starting at the conclusion and working back to the start),
conservation (an objects mass, volume, weight, etc. doesn't change because its appearance
changes),
can group things into categories,
and think logically as long as it is not abstract. Piaget.
Formal operations -
☑️ 12+ years old. They can handle hypotheticals/abstract and scientific reasoning, logical
and systematic thinking (algebra, literary, metaphor). Although he thought not all people reach this
stage of cognitive development, the end goal is hypothetico-deductive reasoning. Piaget.
information processing approach -
☑️ a relatively new approach that uses the computer as a metaphor for the human mind (they
use the two-store model of memory)
learning theory or the behaviorist perspective -
☑️ describes developmental change as a product of learning (nurture side of nature vs.
nurture & are continuity theories). Learning is a change in observable behavior (and behavior is
controlled by stimuli in the environment).
(key people: Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura)
, John Watson -
☑️ founded the Behavioral Psychology in 1913. (he believed that at birth we only have these
emotions: love, anger, and fear)
learning theory/the behaviorist perspective = describes developmental change as a product of
learning (nurture side of nature vs. nurture & are continuity theories).
Pavlov's classical conditioning -
☑️ (sometimes called type S (stimulus) conditioning)
Making a connection between two stimuli. The US already produces the UR (together producing a
reflex) which is the desired response to the neutral stimulus.
{First letter = unconditioned(maybe UC)/conditioned
Second letter = stimulus/response}
Before conditioning: US -> UR
Conditioning: neutral stimulus [-> no response] + US -> UR
After learning: CS -> CR (unless the original S is taken away, which would lead to extinction aka
going back to the original behavior)
higher conditioning = when a new neutral stimulus is associated with a CS
Stimulus generalization -
☑️ When something from conditioning (or uncondtioned) carries over to another related
area. You are afraid of spiders, you might become afraid of other bugs because they are so similar.
stimulus discrimination -
☑️ only showing the reflexive classical conditioning (or UC) response for the specific/exact
stimulus (not similar ones like generalization)
Watson and Little Albert -
☑️ The psychologist classically conditioned the infant to be afraid of a white rat, by pairing
the white rat (a neutral stimuli) with a frightening, loud noise, causing the infant to associate the
rat with the noise.
type R (response) or operant conditioning -
☑️ by Skinner.
-Reinforcement is to increase (+) the behavior.
-Punishment is to decrease (-) the behavior.
-Positive is introducing something.
-Negative is taking away something.
Shaping -
☑️ A form of behavioral modification for getting a subject to start performing a preferable
behavior by reinforcing components of the desired behavior and gradually rewarding more
discriminatively (similar actions are reinforced in a way that leads them to the desired goal).
social learning theory/social cognitive theory -
☑️ by Bandura.
