adjective Describes the qualities of people and things.
Words like 'rich', 'green', 'old', 'hopeless' are X.
An attributive X occurs before a noun: 'the
*black* box'; a predicative X occurs after a verb:
'the student is *intelligent*'.
adverb Indicates the place, manner, degree or
frequency of an event or action. X have many
different functions and can have different
positions in a clause. For example:
'*Unfortunately*, we were late for the
meeting'; 'The team reacted to the decision
*angrily*'.
Linker of cause Because of, as, since, on the grounds that, due
to, owing to, on account of
Linker of result As a result, therefore, thus, thereby
Descriptivism do not give advice
they explain the ways in which native speaker use
their language
= survey of a language
Dialect A dialect of a given language may become the
standard variety of that language mostly due to
coincidental factors, and often due to being
spoken by the people in power.
Functional Provides structure; explains the grammatical
relationship
= structure-class words
Grammar (there are different definitions)
Grammar can be defined as a set of patterns for
how words are put together
Lexical Provides content
= form-class words
Prescriptivism A prescriptivist is judgmental and attempts to
change linguistic behavior
Spoken version of a language Has its own grammar and regularities, which
have evolved to serve the needs of the speakers
who use it.
Open Class New words can be added
Closed Class New words cannot be added
Main clause May only consist of a main clause
Subject and verb
Makes sense on its own
, Co-ordinated clauses Two main clauses
Each making sense on their own
Linked by conjunction, such as and, but or so
= compound sentence
Dependent Clauses May consist of a main clause and one or more
dependent clauses
- Participle clause – relative clause
- Founded in 1922 – which was founded in
1922
= do not make sense on their own
Past Simple If you are referring to a time in the past and
talking about something that was completed at
that time
Asked
Present Perfect When the time mentioned includes the past and
the present
Have/has asked
Past Continuous Describes an action or situation continuing at a
particular point in the past
Were dealing
Present Perfect Continuous Is used for something continuing for a period of
time starting in the past and still happening now
Have/has been dealing
Past Perfect Refers to something that happened before or until
a particular time in the past
Had risen
Past Perfect Continuous Used for something that continued for a period of
time before a particular point in the past
Had been rising
Hedging Language
Used to soften our statements
Make statements less direct
Limit/qualify claims and statements we make
Don’t overuse or underuse
1. Verbs: seem and appear
2. Probability language: likelihood, likely,
probable, possible, possibility
3. Tentative phrases: it could be argued that, it
may be that
= avoids being inappropriately categorical
Qualifying language 1. phrases that show there are or were also
other reasons for an outcome
a. to some extent; to a/some degree
2. phrases that explain in what way something is
Words like 'rich', 'green', 'old', 'hopeless' are X.
An attributive X occurs before a noun: 'the
*black* box'; a predicative X occurs after a verb:
'the student is *intelligent*'.
adverb Indicates the place, manner, degree or
frequency of an event or action. X have many
different functions and can have different
positions in a clause. For example:
'*Unfortunately*, we were late for the
meeting'; 'The team reacted to the decision
*angrily*'.
Linker of cause Because of, as, since, on the grounds that, due
to, owing to, on account of
Linker of result As a result, therefore, thus, thereby
Descriptivism do not give advice
they explain the ways in which native speaker use
their language
= survey of a language
Dialect A dialect of a given language may become the
standard variety of that language mostly due to
coincidental factors, and often due to being
spoken by the people in power.
Functional Provides structure; explains the grammatical
relationship
= structure-class words
Grammar (there are different definitions)
Grammar can be defined as a set of patterns for
how words are put together
Lexical Provides content
= form-class words
Prescriptivism A prescriptivist is judgmental and attempts to
change linguistic behavior
Spoken version of a language Has its own grammar and regularities, which
have evolved to serve the needs of the speakers
who use it.
Open Class New words can be added
Closed Class New words cannot be added
Main clause May only consist of a main clause
Subject and verb
Makes sense on its own
, Co-ordinated clauses Two main clauses
Each making sense on their own
Linked by conjunction, such as and, but or so
= compound sentence
Dependent Clauses May consist of a main clause and one or more
dependent clauses
- Participle clause – relative clause
- Founded in 1922 – which was founded in
1922
= do not make sense on their own
Past Simple If you are referring to a time in the past and
talking about something that was completed at
that time
Asked
Present Perfect When the time mentioned includes the past and
the present
Have/has asked
Past Continuous Describes an action or situation continuing at a
particular point in the past
Were dealing
Present Perfect Continuous Is used for something continuing for a period of
time starting in the past and still happening now
Have/has been dealing
Past Perfect Refers to something that happened before or until
a particular time in the past
Had risen
Past Perfect Continuous Used for something that continued for a period of
time before a particular point in the past
Had been rising
Hedging Language
Used to soften our statements
Make statements less direct
Limit/qualify claims and statements we make
Don’t overuse or underuse
1. Verbs: seem and appear
2. Probability language: likelihood, likely,
probable, possible, possibility
3. Tentative phrases: it could be argued that, it
may be that
= avoids being inappropriately categorical
Qualifying language 1. phrases that show there are or were also
other reasons for an outcome
a. to some extent; to a/some degree
2. phrases that explain in what way something is
