WEEK 1
Global History
Tutorial participation= 10% of final grade
Essay-> Due Oct 30th
Exam-> 2 hours, 2 questions. Section A 6 Q’s about ‘people’ and ‘ideas’. Section B 2 Q’s that draw broadly
on knowledge across the course
Course themes: goods, ideas, people
Introduction- What is Global History? 19th Sept
Lecture Notes
It is impossible to write a good history without considering connection between nations, geography
A recent increase in interest in global level history is partly due to improved connections between countries
• Jump in the 1990s—> collapse of the Soviet Union, more unified world, changed what the West though
about International Relations. International Institutions the were created bolstered global connections and
enable interstate cooperation
• Technological change over time—> made transnational communication greater
• Phenomenon of globalisation—> intense expansion of world trade, interaction of economies
• Cultural, political and technological impacts of globalisation—> contradictory dynamic leading to a crisis
It is important to think past just the rise of the West: connections don’t start just in the West, connections
don’t have to involve the West
“Globalisation is not a new phenomenon, it is centuries old” Sidney Mintz
When history emerged as a discipline in 19th c it was very fundamentally about writing the history of the
nation. People of the nation were at the centre of the story. It explained the rise of the nation state in terms
of national history.
Dismantling of European empires post WWII created new nation states through decolonisations. This turn
towards a new era of nation states was accompanied by interest into the histories of the nation. Example:
The Making of the West Indies (1960) was written before independence. It is a national history but the nation
state never actually came about.
Sebastian Conrad: 3 elements of global history-> comparisons (e.g. considering slavery and racism in
different places), connections/entanglements, causality (at a global scale, general processes underlying
trasnformation) and integration
Are we leaving the age of connectedness? Jeremy Edelman in “What is Global History Now?” says that ‘we
need narratives of global life that reckon with disintegration (nations being pulled apart) as well as
integration’.
How has the world changed since 1450?
Viewed from a demographic and economic perspective rather than nations and empires etc.
Very sharp increase in global population post-1900— decrease in child mortality, medicine is much stronger,
thus people live longer. Charts may show peaks and troughs but the reality is a smooth increase. The
upward trajectory increased after 1700. The annual growth rate peaked in mid 1950s ish. Earlier period
since 1450, lots of data on population isn’t precise: based on inference and estimates.
Our World in Data: Oxford project based on demographics.
Asia dominant in world population and growing. China and India dominant nearly always since 1400
combined had 50%+ of population in the world.
In the 18th c, China’s population starts to enormously grow
- China settles into a long period of stability from the Qing
- Adopts some new food crops: sweet pop (calorie dense) from the Americas
Americas don’t increase until the 18th c. Disease wiped out lots of people.
,Connections between world regions can somewhat explain global population changes. Charts on
compution of primary energy displays changes too. Until 1850, only traditional biofuels, then coal, then
crude oil etc late on.
• before coal, there was increasing deforestation over time.
• the introduction of coal saved Western Europe from a crisis
• each new fuel creates a different society- e.g. oil as a liquid is more mobile than coal, gives
countries political leverage, almost makes them targets
Urban population has increased significantly since 1800 (but only reached approx. 50% now) until around
2000 most people lived in countryside. A move towards industrialisation and urbanisation was only
concentrated in specific areas— very uneven.
• European dominance in urban spaces early 1900s- before and after= Asia
• Children per mother starts to fall dramatically in global north in immediate postwar period, changing family
and gender relations all over (over a period of time).
• Global connection: shift toward smaller family size.
NO TUTORIAL
j/ Uif!Qpubup!jo!uif!Fjhiuffoui!Dfouvsz!!
!!!!!!Npsjofbv-!Njdibfm!!
The potato spread in two major waves throughout the Netherlands, one of which, starting in a monastery at
Nieuport, moved from west to east, whilst the other flowed northward. Both waves met in the area of Liege
around the year 1750.
Potatoes became increasingly important in the diet of the southern Netherlands observable by using
contemporary estimates of the amount of grain needed to feed one person. It decreased over the
eighteenth century. This difference was attributable to the consumption of potatoes, which thus replaced
40% of the cereals. This became possible because:
- the effectiveness of potatoes as a crop, which given an equal surface of land, could feed five times as
many people as wheat
- its appeal to the poor, who had small amounts of land
- the remarkable extension of the surface devoted to its culture
In contrast, only a few provinces in France had accepted the potato, and the dietary regime continued to
favour bread. This is partly due to different rate of population growth.
Population growth increase and potatoes: increased planting of this crop, reduced dependence on cereal
harvests for human consumption, less severe consequences when cereal harvests failed, marked rise in
population.
Argues that the potato was-and continued to be a secondary, supplementary crop by comparison with the
main crops, the major cereals, wheat and rye. Indeed, it was considered a crop for the poor, but it was
neither the first nor the only one of such crops.
An equivalence between potatoes, maize, and buckwheat in terms of yields, corrected by nutritive value, is
not easy to work out, since every region, depending on its particular geographical conditions, had its own
scale. It is not certain that the potato had an indisputable advantage everywhere.
Psychological obstacles also played their part, since people were no longer dealing with a cereal that could
easily be made into flour, bread, or flatcakes. A whole new cuisine had to be invented for the potato, just as
earlier it had been necessary to accustom cows to it by taste, since they were unable to recognize their new
feed by smell. The potato had served for so long as animal feed that its adoption for human consumption
could easily assume the stigma of a reduction in standard of living.
Argues that the increased number of mouths to feed was the impetus for the development of potato
planting. But, this process was only one of the possible solutions to the bottleneck of the eighteenth
century and that many regions were able to find different ways of dealing with their difficulties. Yet in the
19th century, as the demographic growth assumed ever larger proportions, this choice probably tended to
disappear. The potato, thanks in part to its very real advantages, became the only short- term solution
everywhere in western Europe. This it remained, despite some periods of blight, as long as new granaries
,had not opened in other parts of the world and until in due course agricultural science was able to produce
much higher grain yields than the traditional agriculture.
jj/ Uif!Qpubup!Sfwpmvujpo!
!!!!!!Upvttbjou.Tbnb-!Nbhvfmpoof!
jjj/ Ipx!uif!Qpubup!Dibohfe!uif!Xpsmeａt!Ijtupsz!
!!!!!!NdOfjmm-!Xjmmjbn!I!
Argues that the potato’s role is crucial in explaining the development of food supply not just in Europe and
North America but also in China. A key way to understanding a society is to understand its food supply. The
potato enabled population growth and large numbers of people to be fed quickly and efficiently and thus
allowing them to exercise its domination. The potato 'permitted a handful of European nations to assert
domination over most of the world between 1750 and 1950.’
Europe’s superiority is partially attributable to its ability to feed its population during the 18th/19th century.
Armies used to take grain from locals. Potatoes enabled the poor robbed of their food supply to maintain a
level of food access during times of conflict.
Ireland’s case is known is famous because of its exceptionality.
WEEK 2
Enda Delaney
Potatoes
• Originated from Andes Mountains in South America and spread to become a global crop
• Ranked 5th in global crops in terms of feeding people (‘dominant foodstock’)
• Have a profound influence on European history in 18th and 19th c.
• 1 million people died as a result of the failure of the potato as a crop
• Tuber plant with flower at top, underground cultivated edible product. 4000 varieties.
• ‘Most versatile food known to man’ Cormac O Grada, Irish historian. It’s versatility is its greatest strength.
Can be grown in differentia temperatures, poor quality land and is one of the most productive crops you
can grow in terms of its yield. Provides huge amounts of energy and its very nutritious.
• China— now the world’s greatest producer of potatoes
• Height tends to be higher in community’s majority fed by potatoes
From the Andes to China (via Europe)
• Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. Became tied up with Spanish colonisation and conquest of these areas.
• John Hawkins (1564-65) ‘the most delicate roots that may be eaten, and do far exceed our parsnips or
carrots’
• Spanish routes of trade brought it to Europe. Sir Walter Raleigh/Sir Francis Drake brought it to England.
• Spanish Armada go to Europe, shipwrecked near Ireland, west coast of Ireland populated by Spanish,
they bring potatoes with them— could be an urban myth
• Antoine Parmentier (1774) was a key promoter of potato as food stock in France. Went to Louis XVI
promoting potatoes as foodstuff for the poor, harvest shortages would be reduced. Seen as a delicacy in
elite Europe initially. Termed as the ‘potato revolution’: the poor’s reliance on grain food to potatoes.
• China was a key producer in the 20th c. This can be associated with the growth of fast food and this
being related to affluence. High yields, ability to grow on poor land.
• Sweet Potatoes (became known as ‘Irish Potatoes’) were key part of diet in China.
• Resistance to potato as a foodstuff because of taste- traditional in some societies, especially in China.
• Inner Mongolia is a key production place of potatoes due to its climatic conditions.
Ireland and the potato
• The potato arrives in 1580s/90s
• Arthur Young visits in 1776-9, observes and reports that the poorest of the poor are almost exclusively
dependent on the potato. It wasn’t so much produced for trade but for survival, personal consumption.
The average male would eat 10-12 pounds of potatoes a day as part of a mono-diet thus creating
vulnerability. The poorer population had less ingredients to add to potatoes and to accompany it in their
diet.
, • Ireland as a ‘nation of potato eaters’ would suggest its barbaric as the potato is considered a ‘base food’.
Argument made when famine breakout was that theres an inherent need for reform in any society so
dependent on one crop.
• Potato was seen as having aphrodisiac qualities in Ireland leading into the stereotype of large Irish
families.
• 3-4 million of 8 million in Ireland were highly dependent on the potato.
• The less varied diet=lower social class
• Planted round St Patricks Day (17th March) and harvested in April, May. A quick crop.
• Was the world’s richest nation in the 1840s.
Potato famine (1840s)
• Harvest failures caused by phytophthora infesting (late potato blight). Disease carried by ship in the
potato tubers. It was a spore based disease, spread by contact of microspores. Devastated not just
potatoes but other crops including tomatoes.
• This disease spread from US (1842-43) across Europe from Flanders/Belgium (who lost 90% of potato
crop) in 1845. Aug 1845- first reports of the potato blight in England. Sept 1845- reached Ireland. It
devastated populations, caused a food crisis.
• Human reaction to food crisis included the hoarding of food to try and get a better price later on
• Resulted in Irish becoming largely dependent on state relief effort. English failed the Irish in the 1840s by
not developing effective enough relief methods. 1 million died not so much from lack of starvation but
from nutritional insufficiency-related diseases. 1 million emigrated (to Britain and US)
• Key to dealing with potato blight in copper sulphate being spread on crops to inhibit it.
• Government response food shortfall doesn’t always lead to famine, an intervention before that can
produce it (reduce prices, stockpile). This was somewhat effective by the government— population
feeding effort. 1847 (2 years in) English government feeding 1.5 to 2 million people.
• Blight was seen as a divine judgement by the Irish and this idea spread to England too. Lots of folklore
stories created. God’s judgement for wasting potatoes during the good years.
• The Irish famine was the first global humanitarian crisis. First time help was sought globally. Very effective
relief efforts by India, for example.
The Potato and Global History
The rise of the West (particularly Western Europe) is related to the region’s ability to feed large numbers of
people efficiently and effective, this enabled expansion into colonial places.
2009 saw potato blight in the US. No one died and there was no widespread food shortage because there
are now mechanisms of diversity of food stuff that prevented this. It is a staple crop (a basic food source, a
widely mandatory crop for survival). Because its so nutritious, it is key to population growth.
18th century is key to the potato’s history in terms of its growth to huge significance.
j/ Gfsnfoufe!Cfbot!boe!Xftufso!Ubtuf!!
!!!!!!Njou{-!Tjeofz!X/!
The deliberate application of fermentation is a fine example of human inventive genius. Equally and uniquely
human is the operation of culturally conventionalized taste patterns, which serve to set sharply apart what is
appetising.
Beans have a reputation, not entirely deserved, for their capacity to produce flatulence, to cause illness,
and in some rare cases even to kill. The soybean is particularly indigestible; it contains no starch, only
peculiar oligopolysaccharides that the human gut cannot digest.
Jacob Blanc
Soy
Soybeans are in: tofu, sports drinks, hot dog rolls, cereals, brownie mix, peanut butter, powdered drink,
turkey, sausage, ketchup, chicken nuggets
Soybeans in China
Zhou Dynasty, 1046-256 BCE. Soy was one of the wugu crops— five staples. Techniques to make more
appetising and digestible include fermentation (cooked beans exposed to microbial action, this became a
staple eating habit in the early Han period 202 BC-9AD), sprouting (beansprouts used as health remedy up
Global History
Tutorial participation= 10% of final grade
Essay-> Due Oct 30th
Exam-> 2 hours, 2 questions. Section A 6 Q’s about ‘people’ and ‘ideas’. Section B 2 Q’s that draw broadly
on knowledge across the course
Course themes: goods, ideas, people
Introduction- What is Global History? 19th Sept
Lecture Notes
It is impossible to write a good history without considering connection between nations, geography
A recent increase in interest in global level history is partly due to improved connections between countries
• Jump in the 1990s—> collapse of the Soviet Union, more unified world, changed what the West though
about International Relations. International Institutions the were created bolstered global connections and
enable interstate cooperation
• Technological change over time—> made transnational communication greater
• Phenomenon of globalisation—> intense expansion of world trade, interaction of economies
• Cultural, political and technological impacts of globalisation—> contradictory dynamic leading to a crisis
It is important to think past just the rise of the West: connections don’t start just in the West, connections
don’t have to involve the West
“Globalisation is not a new phenomenon, it is centuries old” Sidney Mintz
When history emerged as a discipline in 19th c it was very fundamentally about writing the history of the
nation. People of the nation were at the centre of the story. It explained the rise of the nation state in terms
of national history.
Dismantling of European empires post WWII created new nation states through decolonisations. This turn
towards a new era of nation states was accompanied by interest into the histories of the nation. Example:
The Making of the West Indies (1960) was written before independence. It is a national history but the nation
state never actually came about.
Sebastian Conrad: 3 elements of global history-> comparisons (e.g. considering slavery and racism in
different places), connections/entanglements, causality (at a global scale, general processes underlying
trasnformation) and integration
Are we leaving the age of connectedness? Jeremy Edelman in “What is Global History Now?” says that ‘we
need narratives of global life that reckon with disintegration (nations being pulled apart) as well as
integration’.
How has the world changed since 1450?
Viewed from a demographic and economic perspective rather than nations and empires etc.
Very sharp increase in global population post-1900— decrease in child mortality, medicine is much stronger,
thus people live longer. Charts may show peaks and troughs but the reality is a smooth increase. The
upward trajectory increased after 1700. The annual growth rate peaked in mid 1950s ish. Earlier period
since 1450, lots of data on population isn’t precise: based on inference and estimates.
Our World in Data: Oxford project based on demographics.
Asia dominant in world population and growing. China and India dominant nearly always since 1400
combined had 50%+ of population in the world.
In the 18th c, China’s population starts to enormously grow
- China settles into a long period of stability from the Qing
- Adopts some new food crops: sweet pop (calorie dense) from the Americas
Americas don’t increase until the 18th c. Disease wiped out lots of people.
,Connections between world regions can somewhat explain global population changes. Charts on
compution of primary energy displays changes too. Until 1850, only traditional biofuels, then coal, then
crude oil etc late on.
• before coal, there was increasing deforestation over time.
• the introduction of coal saved Western Europe from a crisis
• each new fuel creates a different society- e.g. oil as a liquid is more mobile than coal, gives
countries political leverage, almost makes them targets
Urban population has increased significantly since 1800 (but only reached approx. 50% now) until around
2000 most people lived in countryside. A move towards industrialisation and urbanisation was only
concentrated in specific areas— very uneven.
• European dominance in urban spaces early 1900s- before and after= Asia
• Children per mother starts to fall dramatically in global north in immediate postwar period, changing family
and gender relations all over (over a period of time).
• Global connection: shift toward smaller family size.
NO TUTORIAL
j/ Uif!Qpubup!jo!uif!Fjhiuffoui!Dfouvsz!!
!!!!!!Npsjofbv-!Njdibfm!!
The potato spread in two major waves throughout the Netherlands, one of which, starting in a monastery at
Nieuport, moved from west to east, whilst the other flowed northward. Both waves met in the area of Liege
around the year 1750.
Potatoes became increasingly important in the diet of the southern Netherlands observable by using
contemporary estimates of the amount of grain needed to feed one person. It decreased over the
eighteenth century. This difference was attributable to the consumption of potatoes, which thus replaced
40% of the cereals. This became possible because:
- the effectiveness of potatoes as a crop, which given an equal surface of land, could feed five times as
many people as wheat
- its appeal to the poor, who had small amounts of land
- the remarkable extension of the surface devoted to its culture
In contrast, only a few provinces in France had accepted the potato, and the dietary regime continued to
favour bread. This is partly due to different rate of population growth.
Population growth increase and potatoes: increased planting of this crop, reduced dependence on cereal
harvests for human consumption, less severe consequences when cereal harvests failed, marked rise in
population.
Argues that the potato was-and continued to be a secondary, supplementary crop by comparison with the
main crops, the major cereals, wheat and rye. Indeed, it was considered a crop for the poor, but it was
neither the first nor the only one of such crops.
An equivalence between potatoes, maize, and buckwheat in terms of yields, corrected by nutritive value, is
not easy to work out, since every region, depending on its particular geographical conditions, had its own
scale. It is not certain that the potato had an indisputable advantage everywhere.
Psychological obstacles also played their part, since people were no longer dealing with a cereal that could
easily be made into flour, bread, or flatcakes. A whole new cuisine had to be invented for the potato, just as
earlier it had been necessary to accustom cows to it by taste, since they were unable to recognize their new
feed by smell. The potato had served for so long as animal feed that its adoption for human consumption
could easily assume the stigma of a reduction in standard of living.
Argues that the increased number of mouths to feed was the impetus for the development of potato
planting. But, this process was only one of the possible solutions to the bottleneck of the eighteenth
century and that many regions were able to find different ways of dealing with their difficulties. Yet in the
19th century, as the demographic growth assumed ever larger proportions, this choice probably tended to
disappear. The potato, thanks in part to its very real advantages, became the only short- term solution
everywhere in western Europe. This it remained, despite some periods of blight, as long as new granaries
,had not opened in other parts of the world and until in due course agricultural science was able to produce
much higher grain yields than the traditional agriculture.
jj/ Uif!Qpubup!Sfwpmvujpo!
!!!!!!Upvttbjou.Tbnb-!Nbhvfmpoof!
jjj/ Ipx!uif!Qpubup!Dibohfe!uif!Xpsmeａt!Ijtupsz!
!!!!!!NdOfjmm-!Xjmmjbn!I!
Argues that the potato’s role is crucial in explaining the development of food supply not just in Europe and
North America but also in China. A key way to understanding a society is to understand its food supply. The
potato enabled population growth and large numbers of people to be fed quickly and efficiently and thus
allowing them to exercise its domination. The potato 'permitted a handful of European nations to assert
domination over most of the world between 1750 and 1950.’
Europe’s superiority is partially attributable to its ability to feed its population during the 18th/19th century.
Armies used to take grain from locals. Potatoes enabled the poor robbed of their food supply to maintain a
level of food access during times of conflict.
Ireland’s case is known is famous because of its exceptionality.
WEEK 2
Enda Delaney
Potatoes
• Originated from Andes Mountains in South America and spread to become a global crop
• Ranked 5th in global crops in terms of feeding people (‘dominant foodstock’)
• Have a profound influence on European history in 18th and 19th c.
• 1 million people died as a result of the failure of the potato as a crop
• Tuber plant with flower at top, underground cultivated edible product. 4000 varieties.
• ‘Most versatile food known to man’ Cormac O Grada, Irish historian. It’s versatility is its greatest strength.
Can be grown in differentia temperatures, poor quality land and is one of the most productive crops you
can grow in terms of its yield. Provides huge amounts of energy and its very nutritious.
• China— now the world’s greatest producer of potatoes
• Height tends to be higher in community’s majority fed by potatoes
From the Andes to China (via Europe)
• Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru. Became tied up with Spanish colonisation and conquest of these areas.
• John Hawkins (1564-65) ‘the most delicate roots that may be eaten, and do far exceed our parsnips or
carrots’
• Spanish routes of trade brought it to Europe. Sir Walter Raleigh/Sir Francis Drake brought it to England.
• Spanish Armada go to Europe, shipwrecked near Ireland, west coast of Ireland populated by Spanish,
they bring potatoes with them— could be an urban myth
• Antoine Parmentier (1774) was a key promoter of potato as food stock in France. Went to Louis XVI
promoting potatoes as foodstuff for the poor, harvest shortages would be reduced. Seen as a delicacy in
elite Europe initially. Termed as the ‘potato revolution’: the poor’s reliance on grain food to potatoes.
• China was a key producer in the 20th c. This can be associated with the growth of fast food and this
being related to affluence. High yields, ability to grow on poor land.
• Sweet Potatoes (became known as ‘Irish Potatoes’) were key part of diet in China.
• Resistance to potato as a foodstuff because of taste- traditional in some societies, especially in China.
• Inner Mongolia is a key production place of potatoes due to its climatic conditions.
Ireland and the potato
• The potato arrives in 1580s/90s
• Arthur Young visits in 1776-9, observes and reports that the poorest of the poor are almost exclusively
dependent on the potato. It wasn’t so much produced for trade but for survival, personal consumption.
The average male would eat 10-12 pounds of potatoes a day as part of a mono-diet thus creating
vulnerability. The poorer population had less ingredients to add to potatoes and to accompany it in their
diet.
, • Ireland as a ‘nation of potato eaters’ would suggest its barbaric as the potato is considered a ‘base food’.
Argument made when famine breakout was that theres an inherent need for reform in any society so
dependent on one crop.
• Potato was seen as having aphrodisiac qualities in Ireland leading into the stereotype of large Irish
families.
• 3-4 million of 8 million in Ireland were highly dependent on the potato.
• The less varied diet=lower social class
• Planted round St Patricks Day (17th March) and harvested in April, May. A quick crop.
• Was the world’s richest nation in the 1840s.
Potato famine (1840s)
• Harvest failures caused by phytophthora infesting (late potato blight). Disease carried by ship in the
potato tubers. It was a spore based disease, spread by contact of microspores. Devastated not just
potatoes but other crops including tomatoes.
• This disease spread from US (1842-43) across Europe from Flanders/Belgium (who lost 90% of potato
crop) in 1845. Aug 1845- first reports of the potato blight in England. Sept 1845- reached Ireland. It
devastated populations, caused a food crisis.
• Human reaction to food crisis included the hoarding of food to try and get a better price later on
• Resulted in Irish becoming largely dependent on state relief effort. English failed the Irish in the 1840s by
not developing effective enough relief methods. 1 million died not so much from lack of starvation but
from nutritional insufficiency-related diseases. 1 million emigrated (to Britain and US)
• Key to dealing with potato blight in copper sulphate being spread on crops to inhibit it.
• Government response food shortfall doesn’t always lead to famine, an intervention before that can
produce it (reduce prices, stockpile). This was somewhat effective by the government— population
feeding effort. 1847 (2 years in) English government feeding 1.5 to 2 million people.
• Blight was seen as a divine judgement by the Irish and this idea spread to England too. Lots of folklore
stories created. God’s judgement for wasting potatoes during the good years.
• The Irish famine was the first global humanitarian crisis. First time help was sought globally. Very effective
relief efforts by India, for example.
The Potato and Global History
The rise of the West (particularly Western Europe) is related to the region’s ability to feed large numbers of
people efficiently and effective, this enabled expansion into colonial places.
2009 saw potato blight in the US. No one died and there was no widespread food shortage because there
are now mechanisms of diversity of food stuff that prevented this. It is a staple crop (a basic food source, a
widely mandatory crop for survival). Because its so nutritious, it is key to population growth.
18th century is key to the potato’s history in terms of its growth to huge significance.
j/ Gfsnfoufe!Cfbot!boe!Xftufso!Ubtuf!!
!!!!!!Njou{-!Tjeofz!X/!
The deliberate application of fermentation is a fine example of human inventive genius. Equally and uniquely
human is the operation of culturally conventionalized taste patterns, which serve to set sharply apart what is
appetising.
Beans have a reputation, not entirely deserved, for their capacity to produce flatulence, to cause illness,
and in some rare cases even to kill. The soybean is particularly indigestible; it contains no starch, only
peculiar oligopolysaccharides that the human gut cannot digest.
Jacob Blanc
Soy
Soybeans are in: tofu, sports drinks, hot dog rolls, cereals, brownie mix, peanut butter, powdered drink,
turkey, sausage, ketchup, chicken nuggets
Soybeans in China
Zhou Dynasty, 1046-256 BCE. Soy was one of the wugu crops— five staples. Techniques to make more
appetising and digestible include fermentation (cooked beans exposed to microbial action, this became a
staple eating habit in the early Han period 202 BC-9AD), sprouting (beansprouts used as health remedy up
