Summary Human Learning – Jeanne Ellis Ormrod 8th edition
Chapter 1: Perspectives on learning
The importance of learning
Human learning take many forms. Some instances of learning are readily
observable. Other instances may lie below the surface. People also learn for a
variety of reasons. Some learn for the external rewards their achievement brings
but others learn for less obvious and more internal reasons.
Because so little of our behavior is instinctive and so much is learned, we are
able to benefit from our experiences. We discover which actions are likely to lead
to successful outcomes and which are not and we modify our behaviors
accordingly.
There seem to be limits to what nonhumans can learn. We human beings seem to
inherit an ability to think and learn in ways that nonhumans cannot. The
particular environment in which we live have a huge impact on the knowledge
and skills we do and don’t acquire. But, our capacity to be versatile and adapt to
many different situations and environments far exceeds that of other animal
species.
Mother nature has provided us with the ability to acquire an exceptionally large
body of knowledge and a wide variety of behaviors. This gives us a greater
degree of flexibility and adaptability compared to many other species.
Defining learning
Learning is a long-term change in mental representation or associations as a
result of experience. It is composed of three parts.
1. Learning is a long-term change: it is not just a brief transitory use of
information but it does not mean it lasts forever.
2. Learning involves mental representations or associations: these are entities
that reside in your head.
3. Learning is a change as a result of experience: thus some sort of new
information a learner gains from the environment.
Determining when learning has occurred
Some psychologist would prefer a definition with the focus on behavior rather
than on changes in mental representations of associations. They say that we can
only determine that learning has occurred when observing a change in behavior.
We know it has occurred only when we actually see it reflected in somebody’s
behavior.
Types of learning research
,Learning can be understood by studying it objectively and systematically through
research.
- Basic research: investigates specific learning processes under tightly controlled
conditions (often in a lab).
- Applied research: investigations in ‘real-world’ tasks and settings (eg.
classroom). The kinds of data collecting differs from study to study. Being both
quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative research: data in the form of measurements and numbers.
Quantitative research: data in the form of complex verbal or behavioral
performances.
Learning principles and theories
Consistent pattern in research findings have less psychologist to make
generalizations about learning processes trough the formulation of both
principles and theories of learning.
- Principles of learning identify certain factors that influence learning and
describe the specific effects these factors have. They are most useful when they
can be applied to many different situations. When a principle stands the test of
time, it is sometimes called a law. Principles tell us what factors are important for
learning.
- Theories of learning provide explanations about the underlying mechanisms
involved in learning. Theories tell us why factors are important for learning.
Principles of learning tend to be fairly stable over time. Theories of learning
continue to change as new research methods are developed, new research
studies are conducted and new research findings come to light.
How theories of learning have evolved over time.
Late 1800s: Structuralism/functionalism: In the beginning of educational
psychology, two domains emerged. These were Structuralism by Wundt and
Functionalism by Dewey. These two perspectives were different, but they had the
same weakness; they lacked a precise, carefully designed research methodology.
Participants were asked to ‘’look’’ inside their heads and described what they
were thinking (introspection).
Early 1900s: Behaviorism: To study learning in an objective, scientific manner,
scientists must focus on things that are observable and can be objectively
measured; people’s behavior (responses) and environmental events (stimuli) that
precede and follow those responses. The behaviorist perspective has contributed
immensely to our understanding of how people learn. Over years its limitations
have become apparent.
1940s: Social learning theory: The idea of social learning theory emerged.
Some psychologist proposed that people can also learn a new behavior simply by
watching and imitating what other people do. This idea of modeling provided an
,alternative perspective (social learning Theory) that focused on how people learn
from observing those around them.
1920s: Cognitivism/social cognitive theory: In the years to follow, gestalt
psychologists, Piaget and Lev Vygotsky have shown that mental phenomena are
important as well so we had to take into account human thought processes
(cognition). A very different perspective emerged one known as cognitive
psychology or more simply cognitivism with objective scientific methods for
studying a wide variety of mental phenomena.
Sociocultural theory: According to the Sociocultural Theory, Humans are able
to share knowledge way better than animals due to our flexible language skills,
therefore we can communicate and collaborate with another. Our complex social
and cultural environments can provide many physical and social support
systems. Sociocultural theory developed theories about the critical roles that
social interaction and cultural legacies play in human learning and cognitive
development.
Contextual theories/system theories: Some psychologists are now
broadening their theories to encompass additional context that affect human
learning including factors immediately tied to our bodies and factors external to
our physical being. Such perspectives which include social cultural theories are
often referred to as contextual theories. When these perspectives encompass
multiple layers of context all of which interact with one another in a myriad way,
they are also known as system theories.
Cognitive neuroscience: Some neurologists, cognitive psychologist and
scientists from other disciplines have teamed up to discover how the brain
influences people's behavior and learning.
Advantages of Theories
Theories have several advantages over principles:
- They allow for a summary of many research studies and integrate numerous
principles and are often quite concise
- Theories provide starting points for conducting new research.
- Theories help us make sense of and explain research findings.
- By giving us ideas about the mechanisms that underlie human learning and
performance, they can ultimately help us design instructional and therapeutic
strategies and environments that facilitate human learning and development tot
the greatest possible degree.
Possible drawbacks of theories
- No single theory explains everything research have discovered about learning.
- Theories affect the research findings that are published, thereby biasing the
knowledge we have about learning.
, Chapter 2: Learning and the brain
Basic building blocks of the human nervous system
The human nervous system has two main components:
1. Central nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord, which connects what we
sense (see, hear, smell etc.) with what we do.
2. Peripheral nervous system: This is the messenger system. It carries
information from receptor cells to the central nervous system and carries it back
to different body parts.
The human nervous system is comprised of three basic building blocks:
Building block 1: Neurons provide the means through which our brains and bodies
transmit and coordinate information. There are three different types of neurons.
Sensory neurons: Carry incoming information from receptor cells.
Interneurons: Integrate and interpret input from multiple locations. The
resulting decisions are transmitted.
Motor neurons: Send messages about how to respond to appropriate parts
of the body.
Neurons vary in shape and size but all of them have several features in common:
- Soma: a cell body that
contains the cell’s nucleus
and is responsible for the
cell’s general health and
well-being.
- Dendrites: Receive
messages from other
neurons.
- Axon: a long, armlike
structure that transmits
information to additional
neurons. The end of the
axon may branch out many
times and the ends may
have terminal buttons that
contain certain chemical
substances.
- Myelin sheath: the white, fatty substance that covers most of the axon. The
myelin coating can enable an axon to transmit messages up to 3000 times faster
than a noncoated axons. Myelin is white in color and is collectively known as
white matter. Neurons themselves are brownish-grayish in color and their
uncoated parts are often referred to as grey matter. More white matter is
associated with higher intelligence, and humans have a greater proportion of
white matter in the front, actively thinking parts of the brain.
Chapter 1: Perspectives on learning
The importance of learning
Human learning take many forms. Some instances of learning are readily
observable. Other instances may lie below the surface. People also learn for a
variety of reasons. Some learn for the external rewards their achievement brings
but others learn for less obvious and more internal reasons.
Because so little of our behavior is instinctive and so much is learned, we are
able to benefit from our experiences. We discover which actions are likely to lead
to successful outcomes and which are not and we modify our behaviors
accordingly.
There seem to be limits to what nonhumans can learn. We human beings seem to
inherit an ability to think and learn in ways that nonhumans cannot. The
particular environment in which we live have a huge impact on the knowledge
and skills we do and don’t acquire. But, our capacity to be versatile and adapt to
many different situations and environments far exceeds that of other animal
species.
Mother nature has provided us with the ability to acquire an exceptionally large
body of knowledge and a wide variety of behaviors. This gives us a greater
degree of flexibility and adaptability compared to many other species.
Defining learning
Learning is a long-term change in mental representation or associations as a
result of experience. It is composed of three parts.
1. Learning is a long-term change: it is not just a brief transitory use of
information but it does not mean it lasts forever.
2. Learning involves mental representations or associations: these are entities
that reside in your head.
3. Learning is a change as a result of experience: thus some sort of new
information a learner gains from the environment.
Determining when learning has occurred
Some psychologist would prefer a definition with the focus on behavior rather
than on changes in mental representations of associations. They say that we can
only determine that learning has occurred when observing a change in behavior.
We know it has occurred only when we actually see it reflected in somebody’s
behavior.
Types of learning research
,Learning can be understood by studying it objectively and systematically through
research.
- Basic research: investigates specific learning processes under tightly controlled
conditions (often in a lab).
- Applied research: investigations in ‘real-world’ tasks and settings (eg.
classroom). The kinds of data collecting differs from study to study. Being both
quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative research: data in the form of measurements and numbers.
Quantitative research: data in the form of complex verbal or behavioral
performances.
Learning principles and theories
Consistent pattern in research findings have less psychologist to make
generalizations about learning processes trough the formulation of both
principles and theories of learning.
- Principles of learning identify certain factors that influence learning and
describe the specific effects these factors have. They are most useful when they
can be applied to many different situations. When a principle stands the test of
time, it is sometimes called a law. Principles tell us what factors are important for
learning.
- Theories of learning provide explanations about the underlying mechanisms
involved in learning. Theories tell us why factors are important for learning.
Principles of learning tend to be fairly stable over time. Theories of learning
continue to change as new research methods are developed, new research
studies are conducted and new research findings come to light.
How theories of learning have evolved over time.
Late 1800s: Structuralism/functionalism: In the beginning of educational
psychology, two domains emerged. These were Structuralism by Wundt and
Functionalism by Dewey. These two perspectives were different, but they had the
same weakness; they lacked a precise, carefully designed research methodology.
Participants were asked to ‘’look’’ inside their heads and described what they
were thinking (introspection).
Early 1900s: Behaviorism: To study learning in an objective, scientific manner,
scientists must focus on things that are observable and can be objectively
measured; people’s behavior (responses) and environmental events (stimuli) that
precede and follow those responses. The behaviorist perspective has contributed
immensely to our understanding of how people learn. Over years its limitations
have become apparent.
1940s: Social learning theory: The idea of social learning theory emerged.
Some psychologist proposed that people can also learn a new behavior simply by
watching and imitating what other people do. This idea of modeling provided an
,alternative perspective (social learning Theory) that focused on how people learn
from observing those around them.
1920s: Cognitivism/social cognitive theory: In the years to follow, gestalt
psychologists, Piaget and Lev Vygotsky have shown that mental phenomena are
important as well so we had to take into account human thought processes
(cognition). A very different perspective emerged one known as cognitive
psychology or more simply cognitivism with objective scientific methods for
studying a wide variety of mental phenomena.
Sociocultural theory: According to the Sociocultural Theory, Humans are able
to share knowledge way better than animals due to our flexible language skills,
therefore we can communicate and collaborate with another. Our complex social
and cultural environments can provide many physical and social support
systems. Sociocultural theory developed theories about the critical roles that
social interaction and cultural legacies play in human learning and cognitive
development.
Contextual theories/system theories: Some psychologists are now
broadening their theories to encompass additional context that affect human
learning including factors immediately tied to our bodies and factors external to
our physical being. Such perspectives which include social cultural theories are
often referred to as contextual theories. When these perspectives encompass
multiple layers of context all of which interact with one another in a myriad way,
they are also known as system theories.
Cognitive neuroscience: Some neurologists, cognitive psychologist and
scientists from other disciplines have teamed up to discover how the brain
influences people's behavior and learning.
Advantages of Theories
Theories have several advantages over principles:
- They allow for a summary of many research studies and integrate numerous
principles and are often quite concise
- Theories provide starting points for conducting new research.
- Theories help us make sense of and explain research findings.
- By giving us ideas about the mechanisms that underlie human learning and
performance, they can ultimately help us design instructional and therapeutic
strategies and environments that facilitate human learning and development tot
the greatest possible degree.
Possible drawbacks of theories
- No single theory explains everything research have discovered about learning.
- Theories affect the research findings that are published, thereby biasing the
knowledge we have about learning.
, Chapter 2: Learning and the brain
Basic building blocks of the human nervous system
The human nervous system has two main components:
1. Central nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord, which connects what we
sense (see, hear, smell etc.) with what we do.
2. Peripheral nervous system: This is the messenger system. It carries
information from receptor cells to the central nervous system and carries it back
to different body parts.
The human nervous system is comprised of three basic building blocks:
Building block 1: Neurons provide the means through which our brains and bodies
transmit and coordinate information. There are three different types of neurons.
Sensory neurons: Carry incoming information from receptor cells.
Interneurons: Integrate and interpret input from multiple locations. The
resulting decisions are transmitted.
Motor neurons: Send messages about how to respond to appropriate parts
of the body.
Neurons vary in shape and size but all of them have several features in common:
- Soma: a cell body that
contains the cell’s nucleus
and is responsible for the
cell’s general health and
well-being.
- Dendrites: Receive
messages from other
neurons.
- Axon: a long, armlike
structure that transmits
information to additional
neurons. The end of the
axon may branch out many
times and the ends may
have terminal buttons that
contain certain chemical
substances.
- Myelin sheath: the white, fatty substance that covers most of the axon. The
myelin coating can enable an axon to transmit messages up to 3000 times faster
than a noncoated axons. Myelin is white in color and is collectively known as
white matter. Neurons themselves are brownish-grayish in color and their
uncoated parts are often referred to as grey matter. More white matter is
associated with higher intelligence, and humans have a greater proportion of
white matter in the front, actively thinking parts of the brain.
