Lectures Sport & Performance Psychology
Lecture 1 – Introduction
Learning goals
- Provide an overview (e.g., description, history/origin, approaches,
and participants) of the study field of Sport and Performance
Psychology.
- Explain the different factors that are studied in Sport and
Performance Psychology in order to understand (=theory) and reach
(=practice) peak performance in sport.
- Understand and describe the underlying conceptual framework of
this course: the X-model for sport behaviour.
- Explain and use examples of action theory to analyse sport
behaviour (i.e., box 3 of the X-model).
What is Sport and Performance Psychology?
- The study of effects of psychological factors on sport-related
behaviour, performance and well-being.
- Motivation, performance, psychological skills, team effectiveness,
coaching, etc.
- Relationships: antecedents and consequences. Cognitive, affective
and behavioural.
Sport Psychology
- Psycho-physiological
- Social-psychological
- Cognitive-behavioural
Example: examining imagery effectiveness
- Psycho-physiological: examining the effect of imagery with use of
MRI.
- Social-psychological: examining the relationship of athlete imagery
use from a team-level perspective to team cohesion.
- Cognitive-behavioural: examining the effects of imagery on
performance.
Questions can be studied and answered from different perspectives:
- Person: individualistic approach.
- Environment: situational approach.
- Person x Environment: interactionist approach = contemporary view:
see also X-model.
Brief history of sport and performance psychology
- 1898 Triplett: effects of performance and arousal. Cyclist rode faster
if they compete with others.
- 1960: performance does not increase endlessly if you give more
arousal, there is an optimal level: the inverted U hypothesis. Optimal
arousal is effected by task complexity.
- 1965 Zajonc: social facilitation theory: the presence of others (like an
audience) increases arousal. Simple task: arousal is highly
, functional, complex task: too much arousal can disrupt the
execution.
- 1960s Ogilvie: one of the first sport psychologists.
What sport and performance psychologists do:
- Research
- Education
- Practice/consultation
Psychological skills contributing to sport performance
Aim: help athletes develop mental skills which are necessary to
- Perform optimally in challenging situations.
- Experience personal highlights.
- Develop to their full potential.
What kind of skills are needed for a peak performance?
- Psychological skills: goal setting, attentional focus, imagery,
relaxation.
- Individual differences: motivation and self-efficacy.
- Environmental factors: coach-effectiveness, peers/team members,
parents, opportunities.
Four-unit of sport skills: they need to be balanced to reach peak
performance.
- Mental, physical, tactical, technical.
Other outcomes: youth sport
- Individual differences: motivation and self-efficacy.
- Environmental factors: coach-effectiveness, peers/team members,
parents, opportunities.
- Enjoyment, character-building, competence.
- Life skills: goal setting, attentional focus, imagery, relaxation.
,X-model: Box 1: Sport situation
- Task demands: handball, football, high jump, discus throwing.
- Task circumstances (more fluctuating/changing factors): e.g.,
football: pitch, ball, referee, opponent, weather.
- Task conditions (more stable factors; arrangements/requirements):
rules of the game, time regulations, pay/rewards, substitutes,
contract.
- Task relations: coach-athlete, team members, competitors,
communication is essential.
X-model: Box 2: Person/athlete
Relatively stable (habitual) characteristics:
- Physical: length, weight, power, speed, strength.
- Technical: effective way of executing a motor task.
- Psychological: persistence, mental toughness, need for
achievement, goal orientation.
- Tactical: reading the game, strategy.
Momentaneous (variable) characteristics:
- Current capacity: injury, fatigue, state anxiety, goal state.
Relevant distinction: actual vs required.
Actual characteristics (Ist-situation):
, - What are actual KSAO’s (knowledge, skills, abilities and other
characteristics) of this player?
- What are actual characteristics of this sport team?
Required characteristics (Soll-situation):
- What are required KSAO’s of this player?
- What are required characteristics of this sport team?
The aim is congruence.
X-model: Box 3: Sport behaviour
- Action plan/strategy/tactical plan.
- Effort. Psychological: willingness, motivation to spend effort.
Physiological: capacity.
- Movement behaviour: perception -> selection -> action
Using action theory to analyse sport behaviour
Action theory: the development of psychological functions as well as
psychological traits, states, and processes are considered as
fundamentally related to action.
Sport behaviour (box 3) can be ordered hierarchically (sequentially).
Football: defensive actions, transition, offensive actions.
Offensive actions: dribbling, passing, shooting.
Shooting, position leg, assess speed of ball, control body posture, kicking.
X-model: Box 4: Sport outcomes
Performance (=result of box 3 according to standard)
- Objective (e.g., height, time, distance, scored goals).
- Subjective: execution (jury; gymnastics, boxing).
- Combination (ski jumping).
- An action that leads to a result.
- Only one of the variables that affect an athlete’s result.
- Under athlete’s own control.
Result (=translation of performance in points)
- Game result (score, win vs loss, ranking position).
- The outcome of a performance.
- Not under athlete’s own control. E.g., with the same performance (9
sec) the result (outcome) may differ, depending on the performance
of others.
X-model: Box 5: Outcomes for person
Person changes him/herself:
- Positive e.g., game pleasure, competence/self-efficacy.
- Negative e.g., fatigue, anxiety, frustration, depression.
Such changes may be temporary or more permanent.
Lecture 2 – Achievement Motivation
Learning goals
Lecture 1 – Introduction
Learning goals
- Provide an overview (e.g., description, history/origin, approaches,
and participants) of the study field of Sport and Performance
Psychology.
- Explain the different factors that are studied in Sport and
Performance Psychology in order to understand (=theory) and reach
(=practice) peak performance in sport.
- Understand and describe the underlying conceptual framework of
this course: the X-model for sport behaviour.
- Explain and use examples of action theory to analyse sport
behaviour (i.e., box 3 of the X-model).
What is Sport and Performance Psychology?
- The study of effects of psychological factors on sport-related
behaviour, performance and well-being.
- Motivation, performance, psychological skills, team effectiveness,
coaching, etc.
- Relationships: antecedents and consequences. Cognitive, affective
and behavioural.
Sport Psychology
- Psycho-physiological
- Social-psychological
- Cognitive-behavioural
Example: examining imagery effectiveness
- Psycho-physiological: examining the effect of imagery with use of
MRI.
- Social-psychological: examining the relationship of athlete imagery
use from a team-level perspective to team cohesion.
- Cognitive-behavioural: examining the effects of imagery on
performance.
Questions can be studied and answered from different perspectives:
- Person: individualistic approach.
- Environment: situational approach.
- Person x Environment: interactionist approach = contemporary view:
see also X-model.
Brief history of sport and performance psychology
- 1898 Triplett: effects of performance and arousal. Cyclist rode faster
if they compete with others.
- 1960: performance does not increase endlessly if you give more
arousal, there is an optimal level: the inverted U hypothesis. Optimal
arousal is effected by task complexity.
- 1965 Zajonc: social facilitation theory: the presence of others (like an
audience) increases arousal. Simple task: arousal is highly
, functional, complex task: too much arousal can disrupt the
execution.
- 1960s Ogilvie: one of the first sport psychologists.
What sport and performance psychologists do:
- Research
- Education
- Practice/consultation
Psychological skills contributing to sport performance
Aim: help athletes develop mental skills which are necessary to
- Perform optimally in challenging situations.
- Experience personal highlights.
- Develop to their full potential.
What kind of skills are needed for a peak performance?
- Psychological skills: goal setting, attentional focus, imagery,
relaxation.
- Individual differences: motivation and self-efficacy.
- Environmental factors: coach-effectiveness, peers/team members,
parents, opportunities.
Four-unit of sport skills: they need to be balanced to reach peak
performance.
- Mental, physical, tactical, technical.
Other outcomes: youth sport
- Individual differences: motivation and self-efficacy.
- Environmental factors: coach-effectiveness, peers/team members,
parents, opportunities.
- Enjoyment, character-building, competence.
- Life skills: goal setting, attentional focus, imagery, relaxation.
,X-model: Box 1: Sport situation
- Task demands: handball, football, high jump, discus throwing.
- Task circumstances (more fluctuating/changing factors): e.g.,
football: pitch, ball, referee, opponent, weather.
- Task conditions (more stable factors; arrangements/requirements):
rules of the game, time regulations, pay/rewards, substitutes,
contract.
- Task relations: coach-athlete, team members, competitors,
communication is essential.
X-model: Box 2: Person/athlete
Relatively stable (habitual) characteristics:
- Physical: length, weight, power, speed, strength.
- Technical: effective way of executing a motor task.
- Psychological: persistence, mental toughness, need for
achievement, goal orientation.
- Tactical: reading the game, strategy.
Momentaneous (variable) characteristics:
- Current capacity: injury, fatigue, state anxiety, goal state.
Relevant distinction: actual vs required.
Actual characteristics (Ist-situation):
, - What are actual KSAO’s (knowledge, skills, abilities and other
characteristics) of this player?
- What are actual characteristics of this sport team?
Required characteristics (Soll-situation):
- What are required KSAO’s of this player?
- What are required characteristics of this sport team?
The aim is congruence.
X-model: Box 3: Sport behaviour
- Action plan/strategy/tactical plan.
- Effort. Psychological: willingness, motivation to spend effort.
Physiological: capacity.
- Movement behaviour: perception -> selection -> action
Using action theory to analyse sport behaviour
Action theory: the development of psychological functions as well as
psychological traits, states, and processes are considered as
fundamentally related to action.
Sport behaviour (box 3) can be ordered hierarchically (sequentially).
Football: defensive actions, transition, offensive actions.
Offensive actions: dribbling, passing, shooting.
Shooting, position leg, assess speed of ball, control body posture, kicking.
X-model: Box 4: Sport outcomes
Performance (=result of box 3 according to standard)
- Objective (e.g., height, time, distance, scored goals).
- Subjective: execution (jury; gymnastics, boxing).
- Combination (ski jumping).
- An action that leads to a result.
- Only one of the variables that affect an athlete’s result.
- Under athlete’s own control.
Result (=translation of performance in points)
- Game result (score, win vs loss, ranking position).
- The outcome of a performance.
- Not under athlete’s own control. E.g., with the same performance (9
sec) the result (outcome) may differ, depending on the performance
of others.
X-model: Box 5: Outcomes for person
Person changes him/herself:
- Positive e.g., game pleasure, competence/self-efficacy.
- Negative e.g., fatigue, anxiety, frustration, depression.
Such changes may be temporary or more permanent.
Lecture 2 – Achievement Motivation
Learning goals
